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ASTM E902-05

(Practice)

Standard Practice for Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometers (Withdrawn 2011)

Standard Practice for Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometers (Withdrawn 2011)

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice should first be used to establish the operating characteristics of a particular X-ray photoelectron spectrometer at a time when the spectrometer performance is known to be optimum. Hence, the spectrometer settings in Section 5 and the expected performance figures given in Section 7 are to be taken only as guides, to be supplanted by the behavior of the user’actual spectrometer.
Subsequently, this practice should be used as a routine check, performed at frequent intervals with the same instrument settings, and the results compared with those obtained in 4.1. Significant deviation from optimum performance may indicate that the spectrometer requires recalibration or other maintenance.
Typical analysis settings should be used with this practice. The use of settings not specified by this practice is left to the discretion of the user, however, the settings should be recorded in accordance with Practice E 996 and the same settings should be used consistently whenever this practice is repeated, so that the results obtained will be directly comparable to previous results.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers a procedure for checking some of the operating characteristics of an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer. Tests herein provide checks of the repeatability of intensity measurements and the drift of the intensities with time. This practice may be conducted at the same time as the spectrometer energy calibration using Practice E 2108.
1.2 LimitationsThis practice is meant to augment, and not to replace, the calibration procedures recommended by the manufacturer of the spectrometer. This practice is also not meant to be used as a means of comparison between X-ray photoelectron spectrometers, but only as a self-consistent check of the operating characteristics of an individual spectrometer.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
WITHDRAWN RATIONALE
DESIG: E902 05 ^RATIONALE: Rationale
This practice covers a procedure for checking some of the operating characteristics of an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer.
Formerly under the jurisdiction of Committee E42 on Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, this practice was withdrawn without replacement in November 2011 due to its limited use by the industry.

General Information

Status
Withdrawn
Publication Date
31-Mar-2005
Withdrawal Date
06-Nov-2011
ICS
17.180.30 - Optical measuring instruments
71.040.50 - Physicochemical methods of analysis
Technical Committee
E42 - Surface Analysis
Drafting Committee
E42.03 - Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
Current Stage
Ref Project

Relations

Replaces
ASTM E902-94(1999) - Standard Practice for Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometers
Effective Date
01-Apr-2005
Referred By
ASTM E1523-15 - Standard Guide to Charge Control and Charge Referencing Techniques in X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
Effective Date
01-Apr-2005
Referred By
ASTM E1016-07(2020) - Standard Guide for Literature Describing Properties of Electrostatic Electron Spectrometers
Effective Date
01-Apr-2005
Referred By
ASTM E2108-16 - Standard Practice for Calibration of the Electron Binding-Energy Scale of an X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometer
Effective Date
01-Apr-2005
Referred By
ASTM E996-19 - Standard Practice for Reporting Data in Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
Effective Date
01-Apr-2005
Referred By
ASTM B827-05(2020) - Standard Practice for Conducting Mixed Flowing Gas (MFG) Environmental Tests
Effective Date
01-Apr-2005

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ASTM E902-05 - Standard Practice for Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometers (Withdrawn 2011)ASTM E902-05 - Standard Practice for Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometers (Withdrawn 2011)
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ASTM E902-05 - Standard Practice for Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometers (Withdrawn 2011)
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NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation:E902–05
Standard Practice for
Checking the Operating Characteristics of X-Ray
1
Photoelectron Spectrometers
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E902; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision.Anumber in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope ISO 21270 Surface ChemicalAnalysis — X-ray Photoelec-
tron and Auger Electron Spectrometers – Linearity of
1.1 This practice covers a procedure for checking some of
Intensity Scale
the operating characteristics of an X-ray photoelectron spec-
ISO 24237 Surface Chemical Analysis— X-ray Photoelec-
trometer. Tests herein provide checks of the repeatability of
tron Spectroscopy – Repeatability and Constancy of
intensity measurements and the drift of the intensities with
Intensity Scale
time. This practice may be conducted at the same time as the
spectrometer energy calibration using Practice E2108.
3. Terminology
1.2 Limitations—Thispracticeismeanttoaugment,andnot
3.1 Definitions—Terms used in X-ray photoelectron spec-
to replace, the calibration procedures recommended by the
troscopy are defined in Terminology E673.
manufacturer of the spectrometer. This practice is also not
3.2 Additionally, the following terms and abbreviations are
meant to be used as a means of comparison between X-ray
used throughout this practice:
photoelectron spectrometers, but only as a self-consistent
check of the operating characteristics of an individual spec-
trometer.
c = counts
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the
ch = channel
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
cps = counts per second
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
eV = electron volts
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
i = numberofdatachannelsacquiredforthepeakof
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. interest
n = number of channels
2. Referenced Documents
no. = number of
2
S/B = signal-to-background ratio
2.1 ASTM Standards:
sc = span
E673 Terminology Relating to Surface Analysis
Dx = step size, eV, between successive data channels
E996 Practice for Reporting Data in Auger Electron Spec-
2
A = peak area above background, mm
troscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
B = background height, mm
E1078 Guide for Specimen Preparation and Mounting in
H = maximum peak height above background, mm
Surface Analysis
I = peak area intensity above background, c-eV/s
A
E2108 Practice for Calibration of the Electron Binding-
I = maximum signal intensity above background,
H
Energy Scale of an X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometer
cps
2.2 ISO Standards
P = peak position on the binding energy scale, eV
FWHM = full width at half maximum
1 4. Significance and Use
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E42 on Surface
AnalysisandisthedirectresponsibilityofSubcommitteeE42.03onAugerElectron
4.1 This practice should first be used to establish the
Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy.
operating characteristics of a particular X-ray photoelectron
Current edition approved April 1, 2005. Published April 2005. Originally
spectrometer at a time when the spectrometer performance is
approved in 1982. Last previous edition approved in 1999 as E902–94(1999).
DOI: 10.1520/E0902-05.
known to be optimum. Hence, the spectrometer settings in
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Section 5 and the expected performance figures given in
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Section 7 are to be taken only as guides, to be supplanted by
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website. the behavior of the user’s actual spectrometer.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
1

---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
E902–05
4.2 Subsequently, this practice should be used as a routine on the binding energy scale (Note 1). In either case, acquire
check, performed at frequent intervals with the same instru- enough scans to collect at least 10000 counts at the peak
ment settings, and the results compared with those obtained in maximum.
4.1. Significant deviation from optimum performance may
NOTE 1—Forinstrumentswheretheminimumscanwidthislargerthan
indicate that the spectrometer requires recalibration or other
recommended, use the minimum allowable scan width. For instruments
maintenance.
where the energy interval cannot be set up in integer steps, use the closest
4.3 Typical analysis settings should be used with this allowed energy.
practice.Theuseof
...

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1.1 This practice covers a procedure for checking some of the operating characteristics of an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer. Tests herein provide checks of the following instrument characteristics: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) signal intensity, background, energy resolution, short-term voltage stability, transmission, and energy scale linearity. It is meant for spectrometers with digital storage of counts in energy channels.
1.2 Limitations -This practice is meant to augment, and not to replace, the calibration procedures recommended by the manufacturer of the spectrometer. This practice is also not meant to be used as a means of comparison between X-ray photoelectron spectrometers, but only as a self-consistent check of the operating characteristics of an individual spectrometer.
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Generally, Raman spectra measured using grating-based dispersive or Fourier transform Raman spectrometers have not been corrected for the instrumental response (spectral responsivity of the detection system). Raman spectra obtained with different instruments may show significant variations in the measured relative peak intensities of a sample compound. This is mainly as a result of differences in their wavelength-dependent optical transmission and detector efficiencies. These variations can be particularly large when widely different laser excitation wavelengths are used, but can occur when the same laser excitation is used and spectra of the same compound are compared between instruments. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the uncorrected luminescence spectrum of SRM 2241, acquired upon four different commercially available Raman spectrometers operating with 785 nm laser excitation. Instrumental response variations can also occur on the same instrument after a component change or service work has been performed. Each spectrometer, due to its unique combination of filters, grating, collection optics and detector response, has a very unique spectral response. The spectrometer dependent spectral response will of course also affect the shape of Raman spectra acquired upon these systems. The shape of this response is not to be construed as either “good or bad” but is the result of design considerations by the spectrometer manufacturer. For instance, as shown in Fig. 1, spectral coverage can vary considerably between spectrometer systems. This is typically a deliberate tradeoff in spectrometer design, where spectral coverage is sacrificed for enhanced spectral resolution.
FIG. 1 SRM 2241 Measured on Four Commercial Raman Spectrometers Utilizing 785 nm Excitation  
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SCOPE
1.1 This guide is designed to enable the user to correct a Raman spectrometer for its relative spectral-intensity response function using NIST Standard Reference Materials2 in the 224X series (currently SRMs 2241, 2242, 2243, 2244, 2245, 2246), or a calibrated irradiance source. This relative intensity correction procedure will enable the intercomparison of Raman spectra acquired from differing instruments, excitation wavelengths, and laboratories.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 Because of the significant dangers associated with the use of lasers, ANSI Z136.1 or suitable regional standards should be followed in conjunction with this practice.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
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ASTM E925-09(2022)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Monitoring the Calibration of Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometers whose Spectral Bandwidth does not Exceed 2 nm

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This practice permits an analyst to compare the performance of an instrument to the manufacturer's supplied performance specifications and to verify its suitability for continued routine use. It also provides generation of calibration monitoring data on a periodic basis, forming a base from which any changes in the performance of the instrument will be evident.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers the parameters of spectrophotometric performance that are critical for testing the adequacy of instrumentation for most routine tests and methods2 within the wavelength range of 200 nm to 700 nm and the absorbance range of 0 to 2. The recommended tests provide a measurement of the important parameters controlling results in spectrophotometric methods, but it is specifically not to be inferred that all factors in instrument performance are measured.  
1.2 This practice may be used as a significant test of the performance of instruments for which the spectral bandwidth does not exceed 2 nm and for which the manufacturer's specifications for wavelength and absorbance accuracy do not exceed the performance tolerances employed here. This practice employs an illustrative tolerance of ±1 % relative for the error of the absorbance scale over the range of 0.2 to 2.0, and of ±1.0 nm for the error of the wavelength scale. A suggested maximum stray radiant power ratio of 4 × 10-4 yields E275 to extensively evaluate the performance of an instrument.  
1.3 This practice should be performed on a periodic basis, the frequency of which depends on the physical environment within which the instrumentation is used. Thus, units handled roughly or used under adverse conditions (exposed to dust, chemical vapors, vibrations, or combinations thereof) should be tested more frequently than those not exposed to such conditions. This practice should also be performed after any significant repairs are made on a unit, such as those involving the optics, detector, or radiant energy source.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
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ASTM E685-93(2021)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Testing Fixed-Wavelength Photometric Detectors Used in Liquid Chromatography

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Although it is possible to observe and measure each of the several characteristics of a detector under different and unique conditions, it is the intent of this practice that a complete set of detector specifications should be obtained under the same operating conditions. It should also be noted that to completely specify a detector’s capability, its performance should be measured at several sets of conditions within the useful range of the detector. The terms and tests described in this practice are sufficiently general that they may be used regardless of the ultimate operating parameters.  
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1.1 This practice is intended to serve as a guide for the testing of the performance of a photometric detector (PD) used as the detection component of a liquid-chromatographic (LC) system operating at one or more fixed wavelengths in the range 210 nm to 800 nm. Measurements are made at 254 nm, if possible, and are optional at other wavelengths.  
1.2 This practice is intended to describe the performance of the detector both independently of the chromatographic system (static conditions) and with flowing solvent (dynamic conditions).  
1.3 For general liquid chromatographic procedures, consult Refs (1-9).2  
1.4 For general information concerning the principles, construction, operation, and evaluation of liquid-chromatography detectors, see Refs (10 and 11) in addition to the sections devoted to detectors in Refs (1-7).  
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ASTM E840-95(2021)e1(Practice)
Standard Practice for Using Flame Photometric Detectors in Gas Chromatography

ABSTRACT
This practice is intended as a guide for the use of a flame photometric detector (FPD) as the detection component of a gas chromatographic system. The different principles of flame photometric detectors, and detector construction are presented in details. The detector sensitivity, minimum detectability, dynamic range, power law of sulphur response, linear range-phosphorus mode, unipower response range, noise and drift, and specificity are presented in details. The photomultiplier dark current is the magnitude of the FPD output signal measured with the FPD flame off. Flame background current is the difference in FPD output signal with the flame on and with the flame off in the absence of phosphorus or sulfur compounds in the flame.
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 If ASTM Committee E13 has not specified an appropriate test procedure for a specific type of spectrophotometer, or if the sample specified by a Committee E13 procedure is incompatible with the intended spectrophotometer operation, then this guide can be used to develop practical performance tests.  
4.1.1 For spectrophotometers which are equipped with permanent or semi-permanent sampling accessories, the test sample specified in a Committee E13 practice may not be compatible with the spectrophotometer configuration. For example, for FT-MIR instruments equipped with transmittance or IRS flow cells, tests based on polystyrene films are impractical. In such cases, these guidelines suggest means by which the recommended test procedures can be modified so as to be performed on a compatible test material.  
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4.2 Tests developed using these guidelines are intended to allow the user to compare the performance of a spectrophotometer on any given day with prior performance. The tests are intended to uncover malfunctions or other changes in instrument operation, but they are not designed to diagnose or quantitatively assess the malfunction or change. The tests are not intended for the comparison of spectrophotometers of different manufacture.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers basic procedures that can be used to develop spectrophotometer performance tests. The guide is intended to be applicable to spectrophotometers operating in the ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared and mid-infrared regions.  
1.2 This guide is not intended as a replacement for specific practices such as Practices E275, E925, E932, E958, E1421, or E1683 that exist for measuring performance of specific types of spectrophotometers. Instead, this guide is intended to provide guidelines in how similar practices should be developed when specific practices do not exist for a particular spectrophotometer type, or when specific practices are not applicable due to sampling or safety concerns. This guide can be used to develop performance tests for on-line process spectrophotometers.  
1.3 This guide describes univariate level zero and level one tests, and multivariate level A and level B tests which can be implemented to measure spectrophotometer performance. These tests are designed to be used as rapid, routine checks of spectrophotometer performance. They are designed to uncover malfunctions or other changes in instrument operation, but do not specifically diagnose or quantitatively assess the malfunction or change. The tests are not intended for the comparison of spectrophotometers of different manufacture.  
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Standard Practice for Testing Flame Ionization Detectors Used in Gas or Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Although it is possible to observe and measure each of the several characteristics of a detector under different and unique conditions, it is the intent of this recommended practice that a complete set of detector specifications should be obtained at the same operating conditions, including geometry, flow rates, and temperatures. It should be noted that to specify a detector’s capability completely, its performance should be measured at several sets of conditions within the useful range of the detector. The terms and tests described in this recommended practice are sufficiently general so that they may be used at whatever conditions may be chosen for other reasons.  
4.2 The FID is generally only used with non-ionizable supercritical fluids as the mobile phase. Therefore, this standard does not include the use of modifiers in the supercritical fluid.  
4.3 Linearity and speed of response of the recording system or other data acquisition device used should be such that it does not distort or otherwise interfere with the performance of the detector. Effective recorder response, Bonsall (5) and McWilliam (6), in particular, should be sufficiently fast so that it can be neglected in sensitivity of measurements. If additional amplifiers are used between the detector and the final readout device, their characteristics should also first be established.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers the testing of the performance of a flame ionization detector (FID) used as the detection component of a gas or supercritical fluid (SF) chromatographic system.  
1.2 This recommended practice is directly applicable to an FID that employs a hydrogen-air or hydrogen-oxygen flame burner and a dc biased electrode system.  
1.3 This recommended practice covers the performance of the detector itself, independently of the chromatographic column, the column-to-detector interface (if any), and other system components, in terms that the analyst can use to predict overall system performance when the detector is made part of a complete chromatographic system.  
1.4 For general gas chromatographic procedures, Practice E260 should be followed except where specific changes are recommended herein for the use of an FID. For definitions of gas chromatography and its various terms see recommended Practice E355.  
1.5 For general information concerning the principles, construction, and operation of an FID, see Refs (1, 2, 3, 4).2  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific safety information, see Section 5.  
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ASTM E1303-95(2017)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Refractive Index Detectors Used in Liquid Chromatography

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
3.1 Although it is possible to observe and measure each of several characteristics of a detector under different and unique conditions, it is the intent of this practice that a complete set of detector test results should be obtained under the same operating conditions. It should also be noted that to specify completely a detector's capability, its performance should be measured at several sets of conditions within the useful range of the detector.  
3.2 The objective of this practice is to test the detector under specified conditions and in a configuration without an LC column. This is a separation independent test. In certain circumstances it might also be necessary to test the detector in the separation mode with an LC column in the system, and the appropriate concerns are also mentioned. The terms and tests described in this practice are sufficiently general so that they may be adapted for use at whatever conditions may be chosen for other reasons.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers tests used to evaluate the performance and to list certain descriptive specifications of a refractive index (RI) detector used as the detection component of a liquid chromatographic (LC) system.  
1.2 This practice is intended to describe the performance of the detector both independent of the chromatographic system (static conditions, without flowing solvent) and with flowing solvent (dynamic conditions).  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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ASTM E925-09(2014)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Monitoring the Calibration of Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometers whose Spectral Bandwidth does not Exceed 2 nm

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This practice permits an analyst to compare the performance of an instrument to the manufacturer's supplied performance specifications and to verify its suitability for continued routine use. It also provides generation of calibration monitoring data on a periodic basis, forming a base from which any changes in the performance of the instrument will be evident.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers the parameters of spectrophotometric performance that are critical for testing the adequacy of instrumentation for most routine tests and methods2 within the wavelength range of 200 to 700 nm and the absorbance range of 0 to 2. The recommended tests provide a measurement of the important parameters controlling results in spectrophotometric methods, but it is specifically not to be inferred that all factors in instrument performance are measured.  
1.2 This practice may be used as a significant test of the performance of instruments for which the spectral bandwidth does not exceed 2 nm and for which the manufacturer's specifications for wavelength and absorbance accuracy do not exceed the performance tolerances employed here. This practice employs an illustrative tolerance of ±1 % relative for the error of the absorbance scale over the range of 0.2 to 2.0, and of ±1.0 nm for the error of the wavelength scale. A suggested maximum stray radiant power ratio of 4 × 10-4 yields  
1.3 This practice should be performed on a periodic basis, the frequency of which depends on the physical environment within which the instrumentation is used. Thus, units handled roughly or used under adverse conditions (exposed to dust, chemical vapors, vibrations, or combinations thereof) should be tested more frequently than those not exposed to such conditions. This practice should also be performed after any significant repairs are made on a unit, such as those involving the optics, detector, or radiant energy source.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
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ASTM E840-95(2013)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Using Flame Photometric Detectors in Gas Chromatography

ABSTRACT
This practice is intended as a guide for the use of a flame photometric detector (FPD) as the detection component of a gas chromatographic system. The different principles of flame photometric detectors, and detector construction are presented in details. The detector sensitivity, minimum detectability, dynamic range, power law of sulphur response, linear range-phosphorus mode, unipower response range, noise and drift, and specificity are presented in details. The photomultiplier dark current is the magnitude of the FPD output signal measured with the FPD flame off. Flame background current is the difference in FPD output signal with the flame on and with the flame off in the absence of phosphorus or sulfur compounds in the flame.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice is intended as a guide for the use of a flame photometric detector (FPD) as the detection component of a gas chromatographic system.  
1.2 This practice is directly applicable to an FPD that employs a hydrogen-air flame burner, an optical filter for selective spectral viewing of light emitted by the flame, and a photomultiplier tube for measuring the intensity of light emitted.  
1.3 This practice describes the most frequent use of the FPD which is as an element-specific detector for compounds containing sulfur (S) or phosphorus (P) atoms. However, nomenclature described in this practice are also applicable to uses of the FPD other than sulfur or phosphorus specific detection.  
1.4 This practice is intended to describe the operation and performance of the FPD itself independently of the chromatographic column. However, the performance of the detector is described in terms which the analyst can use to predict overall system performance when the detector is coupled to the column and other chromatographic system components.  
1.5 For general gas chromatographic procedures, Practice E260 should be followed except where specific changes are recommended herein for use of an FPD.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  For specific safety information, see Section 4, Hazards.

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