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ASTM E45-11a

(Test Method)

Standard Test Methods for Determining the Inclusion Content of Steel

Standard Test Methods for Determining the Inclusion Content of Steel

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
These test methods cover four macroscopic and five microscopic test methods (manual and image analysis) for describing the inclusion content of steel and procedures for expressing test results.
Inclusions are characterized by size, shape, concentration, and distribution rather than chemical composition. Although compositions are not identified, Microscopic methods place inclusions into one of several composition-related categories (sulfides, oxides, and silicatesthe last as a type of oxide). Paragraph 12.2.1 describes a metallographic technique to facilitate inclusion discrimination. Only those inclusions present at the test surface can be detected.
The macroscopic test methods evaluate larger surface areas than microscopic test methods and because examination is visual or at low magnifications, these methods are best suited for detecting larger inclusions. Macroscopic methods are not suitable for detecting inclusions smaller than about 0.40 mm (1/64 in.) in length and the methods do not discriminate inclusions by type.
The microscopic test methods are employed to characterize inclusions that form as a result of deoxidation or due to limited solubility in solid steel (indigenous inclusions). As stated in 1.1, these microscopic test methods rate inclusion severities and types based on morphological type, that is, by size, shape, concentration, and distribution, but not specifically by composition. These inclusions are characterized by morphological type, that is, by size, shape, concentration, and distribution, but not specifically by composition. The microscopic methods are not intended for assessing the content of exogenous inclusions (those from entrapped slag or refractories). In case of a dispute whether an inclusion is indigenous or exogenous, microanalytical techniques such as energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) may be used to aid in determining the nature of the inclusion. However, experience and knowledge of the casting process and production ma...
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover a number of recognized procedures for determining the nonmetallic inclusion content of wrought steel. Macroscopic methods include macroetch, fracture, step-down, and magnetic particle tests. Microscopic methods include five generally accepted systems of examination. In these microscopic methods, inclusions are assigned to a category based on similarities in morphology, and not necessarily on their chemical identity. Metallographic techniques that allow simple differentiation between morphologically similar inclusions are briefly discussed. While the methods are primarily intended for rating inclusions, constituents such as carbides, nitrides, carbonitrides, borides, and intermetallic phases may be rated using some of the microscopic methods. In some cases, alloys other than steels may be rated using one or more of these methods; the methods will be described in terms of their use on steels.
1.2 These test methods cover procedures to perform JK-type inclusion ratings using automatic image analysis in accordance with microscopic methods A and D.
1.3 Depending on the type of steel and the properties required, either a macroscopic or a microscopic method for determining the inclusion content, or combinations of the two methods, may be found most satisfactory.
1.4 These test methods deal only with recommended test methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any grade of steel.
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. Values in parentheses are conversions and are approximate.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

General Information

Status
Historical
Publication Date
30-Sep-2011
ICS
77.040.99 - Other methods of testing of metals
Technical Committee
E04 - Metallography
Drafting Committee
E04.09 - Inclusions
Current Stage
Ref Project

Relations

Replaces
ASTM E45-11 - Standard Test Methods for Determining the Inclusion Content of Steel
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A579/A579M-20 - Standard Specification for Superstrength Alloy Steel Forgings
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A485-17(2022) - Standard Specification for High Hardenability Antifriction Bearing Steel
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM F1376-92(2020) - Standard Guide for Metallurgical Analysis for Gas Distribution System Components (Withdrawn 2023)
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM D8503-23 - Standard Test Method for Determining the Scuffing Temperature Limit of Lubricating Oils Using the SRV Test Machine
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM D7594-19 - Standard Test Method for Determining Fretting Wear Resistance of Lubricating Greases Under High Hertzian Contact Pressures Using a High-Frequency, Linear-Oscillation (SRV) Test Machine
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A1099/A1099M-20 - Standard Specification for Modified Alloy Steel Forgings, Forged Bar, and Rolled Bar Commonly Used in Oil and Gas Pressure Vessels
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM F2332-06(2022) - Standard Specification for Annular Ball Bearings for Instruments and Precision Rotating Components
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A920/A920M-14(2019) - Standard Specification for Steel Bars, Microalloy, Hot-Wrought, Special Quality, Mechanical Properties
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A232/A232M-18 - Standard Specification for Chromium-Vanadium Alloy Steel Valve Spring Quality Wire
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A646/A646M-17(2022) - Standard Specification for Premium Quality Alloy Steel Blooms and Billets for Aircraft and Aerospace Forgings
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A534-17(2022) - Standard Specification for Carburizing Steels for Anti-Friction Bearings
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A230/A230M-19 - Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Carbon Valve Spring Quality
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM E2142-08(2015) - Standard Test Methods for Rating and Classifying Inclusions in Steel Using the Scanning Electron Microscope
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011
Referred By
ASTM A909/A909M-06(2021) - Standard Specification for Steel Forgings, Microalloy, for General Industrial Use
Effective Date
01-Oct-2011

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ASTM E45-11a - Standard Test Methods for Determining the Inclusion Content of Steel
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NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation: E45 − 11a
StandardTest Methods for
1
Determining the Inclusion Content of Steel
ThisstandardisissuedunderthefixeddesignationE45;thenumberimmediatelyfollowingthedesignationindicatestheyearoforiginal
adoptionor,inthecaseofrevision,theyearoflastrevision.Anumberinparenthesesindicatestheyearoflastreapproval.Asuperscript
epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.
1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents
2
1.1 These test methods cover a number of recognized 2.1 ASTM Standards:
procedures for determining the nonmetallic inclusion content E3Guide for Preparation of Metallographic Specimens
of wrought steel. Macroscopic methods include macroetch, E7Terminology Relating to Metallography
fracture, step-down, and magnetic particle tests. Microscopic E381Method of Macroetch Testing Steel Bars, Billets,
methods include five generally accepted systems of examina- Blooms, and Forgings
tion. In these microscopic methods, inclusions are assigned to E709Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing
a category based on similarities in morphology, and not E768Guide for Preparing and Evaluating Specimens for
necessarily on their chemical identity. Metallographic tech- Automatic Inclusion Assessment of Steel
niques that allow simple differentiation between morphologi- E1245Practice for Determining the Inclusion or Second-
cally similar inclusions are briefly discussed. While the meth- Phase Constituent Content of Metals byAutomatic Image
ods are primarily intended for rating inclusions, constituents Analysis
such as carbides, nitrides, carbonitrides, borides, and interme- E1444Practice for Magnetic Particle Testing
tallic phases may be rated using some of the microscopic E1951Guide for Calibrating Reticles and Light Microscope
methods. In some cases, alloys other than steels may be rated Magnifications
3
using one or more of these methods; the methods will be
2.2 SAE Standards:
described in terms of their use on steels.
J422,Recommended Practice for Determination of Inclu-
sions in Steel
1.2 ThesetestmethodscoverprocedurestoperformJK-type
3
2.3 Aerospace Material Specifications:
inclusionratingsusingautomaticimageanalysisinaccordance
AMS 2300,Premium Aircraft-Quality Steel Cleanliness:
with microscopic methods A and D.
Magnetic Particle Inspection Procedure
1.3 Depending on the type of steel and the properties
AMS 2301,Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness: Magnetic
required, either a macroscopic or a microscopic method for
Particle Inspection Procedure
determining the inclusion content, or combinations of the two
AMS 2303,Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness: Martensitic
methods, may be found most satisfactory.
Corrosion-Resistant Steels Magnetic Particle Inspection
1.4 These test methods deal only with recommended test
Procedure
methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining
AMS2304,SpecialAircraft-QualitySteelCleanliness:Mag-
or establishing limits of acceptability for any grade of steel.
netic Particle Inspection Procedure
4
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the 2.4 ISO Standards:
standard. Values in parentheses are conversions and are ap-
ISO 3763,Wrought Steels—Macroscopic Methods for As-
proximate. sessing the Content of Nonmetallic Inclusions
ISO 4967,Steel—Determination of Content of Nonmetallic
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the
Inclusions—Micrographic Methods Using Standard Dia-
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
grams
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
1
These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E04 on Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Metallography and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E04.09 on Inclu- the ASTM website.
3
sions. AvailablefromSAEInternational(SAE),400CommonwealthDr.,Warrendale,
Current edition approved Oct. 1, 2011. Published March 2012. Originally PA 15096-0001, http://www.sae.org.
4
approved in 1942. Last previous edition approved in 2011 as E45–11. DOI: Available fromAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St.,
10.1520/E0045-11A. 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, http://www.ansi.org.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
1

---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
E45 − 11a
2.5 ASTM Adjuncts: methods place inclusions into one of several composition-
5
Inclusions in Steel Plates I-A and II rela
...

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Standard Practice for Production and Evaluation of Field Metallographic Replicas

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4.1 Replication is a nondestructive sampling procedure that records and preserves the topography of a metallographically prepared surface as a negative relief on a plastic film (replica). The replica permits the examination and analysis of the metallographically prepared surface on the LM or SEM.  
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1.1 This practice covers recognized methods for the preparation and evaluation of cellulose acetate or plastic film replicas which have been obtained from metallographically prepared surfaces. It is designed for the evaluation of replicas to ensure that all significant features of a metallographically prepared surface have been duplicated and preserved on the replica with sufficient detail to permit both LM and SEM examination with optimum resolution and sensitivity.  
1.2 This practice may be used as a controlling document in commercial situations.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. Inch-pound units given in parentheses are for information only.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
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ASTM E2283-08(2019)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Extreme Value Analysis of Nonmetallic Inclusions in Steel and Other Microstructural Features

ABSTRACT
This practice describes a methodology to statistically characterize the distribution of the largest indigenous non-metallic inclusions in steel specimens based upon quantitative metallographic measurements. This practice enables the experimenter to estimate the extreme value distribution of inclusions in steels. The procedures in determining non-metallic inclusions in steel are presented and discussed in details.
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5.1 This practice is used to assess the indigenous inclusions or second-phase constituents in metals using extreme value statistics.  
5.2 It is well known that failures of mechanical components, such as gears and bearings, are often caused by the presence of large nonmetallic oxide inclusions. Failure of a component can often be traced to the presence of a large inclusion. Predictions related to component fatigue life are not possible with the evaluations provided by standards such as Test Methods E45, Practice E1122, or Practice E1245. The use of extreme value statistics has been related to component life and inclusion size distributions by several different investigators (3-8). The purpose of this practice is to create a standardized method of performing this analysis.  
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SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a methodology to statistically characterize the distribution of the largest indigenous nonmetallic inclusions in steel specimens based upon quantitative metallographic measurements. The practice is not suitable for assessing exogenous inclusions.  
1.2 Based upon the statistical analysis, the nonmetallic content of different lots of steels can be compared.  
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4.1 For measurements obtained from light microscopy, linear feature parameters shall be reported as micrometers, and feature areas shall be reported as micrometers.  
1.5 The methodology can be extended to other materials and to other microstructural features.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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ASTM
ASTM E82/E82M-14(2019)(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Determining the Orientation of a Metal Crystal

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The physical properties of metals and other materials are often anisotropic (for example: Young's modulus will typically vary in different crystallographic directions). As such, it is often desirable or necessary to determine the orientation of a single crystal to ascertain the relation of any pertinent physical properties with respect to different directions in the material.  
4.2 This test method can be used commercially as a quality control test in production situations in which a desired orientation, within prescribed limits, is required.  
4.3 With the use of an adjustable, fixed holder that can later be mounted on a saw, lathe, or other machine, a single crystal material can be moved to a preferred orientation and subsequently sectioned, ground, or processed otherwise.  
4.4 If the grains in a polycrystalline material are large enough, this test method can also be used to determine their orientations and differences in orientation can be documented or mapped or both.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the back-reflection Laue procedure for determining the orientation of a metal crystal. The back-reflection Laue method for determining crystal orientation may be applied to macrograins and micrograins depending on the beam size within polycrystalline aggregates, as well as to single crystals of any size. This test method is described with reference to cubic crystals and other structures such as: hexagonal, tetragonal, or orthorhombic crystals.  
1.2 Most natural crystals have well developed external faces, and the orientation of such crystals can usually be determined from inspection. The orientation of a crystal having poorly developed faces or no faces at all (for example, a metal crystal prepared in the laboratory) shall be determined by more elaborate methods. The most convenient and accurate of these involves the use of X-ray diffraction. The “orientation of a metal crystal” is known when the positions in space of the crystallographic axes of the unit cell have been located with reference to the surface geometry of the crystal specimen. This relation between unit cell position and surface geometry is most conveniently expressed by stereographic or gnomonic projection.  
1.3 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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