ASTM E2277-14(2019)

Standard Guide for Design and Construction of Coal Ash Structural Fills

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 General:  
4.1.1 Many CCPs are suitable materials for the construction of engineered structural fills. CCPs may be used as: structural fill for building sites and foundations; embankments for highways and railroads, road bases, dikes, and levees; and in any other application requiring a compacted fill material. Their low unit weight, relatively high shear strength, ease of handling, and compaction make CCPs useful as fill material. However, the specific engineering and environmental properties of these materials can vary from source to source and must be evaluated for each material, or combination of materials, to be used for an engineered structural fill. Information contained in Guide D5759 may be applicable to some CCPs to be used in engineered structural fills. AASHTO Standard Practice PP059-09-UL also addresses the use of coal combustion fly ash in embankments. The requirements for the type of CCPs that can be used for specific engineered structural fills may also vary because of local site conditions or the intended use of the fill, or both. Environmental considerations are addressed in Section 5.  
4.1.2 CCPs can be a cost-effective fill material. In many areas, they are available in bulk quantities at a reasonable cost. The use of CCPs conserves other resources and reduces the expenditures required for the purchase, permitting, and operation of a soil borrow pit. CCPs often can be delivered to a job site at near optimum moisture content and generally do not require additional crushing, screening, or processing as compared to comparable native materials.  
4.1.3 Use of CCPs conserves natural resources by avoiding extraction or mining of soils, aggregates, or similar fill material that also conserves energy and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.  
4.1.4 The volume of beneficially used CCPs preserves valuable landfill space.  
4.2 Regulatory Framework:  
4.2.1 Federal—Currently, there are no federal regulations addressing the beneficial use of CCPs. ...
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers procedures for the design and construction of engineered structural fills using coal combustion products (CCPs) including but not limited to fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag or other CCPs that can meet the requirements of an engineered fill as described herein. CCPs may be used alone or blended with soils or other suitable materials to achieve desired geotechnical properties.  
1.2 This guide describes the unique design and construction considerations that may apply to engineered structural fills constructed of with CCPs that have been adequately characterized as being suitable for this beneficial use.  
1.3 Beneficial utilization of CCPs consistent with this standard conserves land, natural resources, and  
1.4 This guide applies only to CCPs produced primarily by the combustion of coal.  
1.5 The testing, engineering, and construction practices for coal ash fills are similar to generally accepted practices for natural soil fills. Coal ash structural fills should be designed using generally accepted engineering practices. However, when CCPs are used in saturated conditions such as ponds or impoundments, the potential for liquefaction may need to be considered.  
1.6 Laws and regulations governing the use of coal ash vary by state. The user of this guide has the responsibility to determine and comply with applicable requirements.  
1.7 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.9 This international standard was developed...

General Information

• Status: Published
• Publication Date: 31-Aug-2019
• ICS: 13.020.40 - Pollution, pollution control and conservation
• Technical Committee: E50 - Environmental Assessment, Risk Management and Corrective Action
• Drafting Committee: E50.03 - Beneficial Use

Relations

• Replaces: ASTM E2277-14 - Standard Guide for Design and Construction of Coal Ash Structural Fills
• Effective Date: 01-Sep-2019
• Refers: ASTM D4959-24 - Standard Test Method for Determination of Water Content of Soil By Direct Heating
• Effective Date: 01-Feb-2024
• Refers: ASTM D854-23 - Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by the Water Displacement Method
• Effective Date: 01-Nov-2023
• Refers: ASTM G51-23 - Standard Test Method for Measuring pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion Evaluations
• Effective Date: 01-Nov-2023
• Refers: ASTM D5759-12(2020) - Standard Guide for Characterization of Coal Fly Ash and Clean Coal Combustion Fly Ash for Potential Uses
• Effective Date: 01-May-2020
• Refers: ASTM D3987-12(2020) - Standard Practice for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with Water
• Effective Date: 01-May-2020
• Refers: ASTM D4767-11(2020) - Standard Test Method for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test for Cohesive Soils
• Effective Date: 01-Apr-2020
• Refers: ASTM E2201-13(2020) - Standard Terminology for Coal Combustion Products
• Effective Date: 01-Jan-2020
• Refers: ASTM D7181-20 - Standard Test Method for Consolidated Drained Triaxial Compression Test for Soils
• Effective Date: 01-Jan-2020
• Refers: ASTM C593-19 - Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Other Pozzolans for Use With Lime for Soil Stabilization
• Effective Date: 01-Dec-2019
• Refers: ASTM D4972-19 - Standard Test Methods for pH of Soils
• Effective Date: 01-May-2019
• Refers: ASTM C150/C150M-19 - Standard Specification for Portland Cement
• Effective Date: 01-Apr-2019
• Refers: ASTM D2216-19 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass
• Effective Date: 01-Mar-2019
• Refers: ASTM D4972-18 - Standard Test Methods for pH of Soils
• Effective Date: 01-Jul-2018
• Refers: ASTM C618-17 - Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
• Effective Date: 01-Oct-2017

Overview

ASTM E2277-14(2019): Standard Guide for Design and Construction of Coal Ash Structural Fills, developed by ASTM International, provides comprehensive procedures, principles, and recommendations for utilizing coal combustion products (CCPs) as engineered fill material in construction projects. The guide focuses on geotechnical and environmental considerations for structural fills composed primarily of CCPs, such as fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag, produced from coal combustion. It is a valuable reference for engineers, regulators, and project owners wanting to benefit from the cost-effective, sustainable, and resource-conserving potential of coal ash structural fills while ensuring safety and regulatory compliance.

Key Topics

• Suitability and Evaluation of CCPs: Not all CCPs have the same engineering or environmental characteristics. The standard highlights the importance of characterizing each material or material combination for suitability, including geotechnical and chemical assessments.
• Design and Construction Considerations: The standard outlines design parameters such as bulk density, compaction, grain size, strength, permeability, consolidation, and potential for liquefaction or frost heave, all of which affect the performance of coal ash fills.
• Environmental and Regulatory Frameworks: The guide addresses the environmental impact, such as potential leaching of trace elements, and underscores the need to comply with varying state and local regulations. While there are no federal regulations for beneficial CCP use in fills, local oversight and permitting are essential.
• Sustainability and Resource Conservation: Utilizing CCPs as fill conserves natural aggregates, reduces the need for excavation, saves landfill space, cuts costs, and can lower greenhouse gas emissions.
• Testing and Quality Control: The standard recommends rigorous laboratory and field testing for properties such as compaction, hydraulic conductivity, chemical composition, and leachability to ensure performance and environmental safety.
• Site Selection and Preparation: Proper site screening, preparation, and drainage are emphasized to prevent issues like internal erosion, instability, or environmental contamination.

Applications

Coal ash structural fills, designed according to ASTM E2277, are frequently used in:

• Building Sites and Foundations: Providing stable subgrades for commercial, residential, and industrial developments.
• Transportation Infrastructure: Embankments for highways, railways, road bases, and airport pavements.
• Flood Protection: Dikes, levees, and berms where lightweight material and fill stability are required.
• Land Reclamation: Backfilling of quarries or brownfield sites, conserving landfill space while providing beneficial re-use of industrial byproducts.

Key advantages of using CCPs in these applications include cost-effectiveness due to the material's availability and minimal processing requirements, as well as environmental benefits like conserving aggregates and reducing landfill use.

Related Standards

The use of coal ash in structural fills is interconnected with several ASTM and industry standards, including:

• ASTM D5759: Guide for Characterization of Coal Fly Ash for Potential Uses.
• ASTM D698 and D1557: Laboratory compaction characteristics of soils.
• ASTM C618, C311, and C593: Specifications and test methods related to fly ash and pozzolanic materials.
• AASHTO PP059-09-UL: Standard Practice for the use of coal combustion fly ash in embankments.
• Relevant EPA and OSHA standards: Concerning environmental protection, solid waste, and worker safety.

Complying with these referenced standards ensures a comprehensive approach covering material properties, environmental safeguards, design, construction, and regulatory requirements.

---

Keywords: ASTM E2277, coal ash structural fills, coal combustion products (CCPs), fly ash fill, engineered fills, sustainable construction, environmental compliance, CCP testing, landfill conservation, geotechnical engineering, ASTM standards.

Standards Content (Sample)

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: E2277 − 14 (Reapproved 2019)
Standard Guide for
Design and Construction of Coal Ash Structural Fills
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2277; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 1.9 This international standard was developed in accor-
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
1.1 This guide covers procedures for the design and con-
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
struction of engineered structural fills using coal combustion
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
products (CCPs) including but not limited to fly ash, bottom
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
ash, boiler slag or other CCPs that can meet the requirements
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
of an engineered fill as described herein. CCPs may be used
alone or blended with soils or other suitable materials to
2. Referenced Documents
achieve desired geotechnical properties.
2.1 ASTM Standards:
1.2 This guide describes the unique design and construction
C150/C150M Specification for Portland Cement
considerations that may apply to engineered structural fills
C188 Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement
constructed of with CCPs that have been adequately charac-
C311 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or
terized as being suitable for this beneficial use.
Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland-Cement Concrete
1.3 Beneficial utilization of CCPs consistent with this stan- C593 Specification for FlyAsh and Other Pozzolans for Use
dard conserves land, natural resources, and With Lime for Soil Stabilization
C595/C595M Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
1.4 This guide applies only to CCPs produced primarily by
C618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
the combustion of coal.
Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
1.5 The testing, engineering, and construction practices for
C1157 Performance Specification for Hydraulic Cement
coal ash fills are similar to generally accepted practices for
C1600 Specification for Rapid Hardening Hydraulic Cement
natural soil fills. Coal ash structural fills should be designed
D75 Practice for Sampling Aggregates
using generally accepted engineering practices. However,
D422 Test Method for Particle-SizeAnalysis of Soils (With-
when CCPs are used in saturated conditions such as ponds or
drawn 2016)
impoundments, the potential for liquefaction may need to be
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
considered.
Fluids
D698 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Character-
1.6 Laws and regulations governing the use of coal ash vary
by state. The user of this guide has the responsibility to istics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft (600
kN-m/m ))
determine and comply with applicable requirements.
D854 Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
1.7 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded
Water Pycnometer
as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical
D1195/D1195M Test Method for Repetitive Static Plate
conversions to SI units that are provided for information only
Load Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement Components,
and are not considered standard.
for Use in Evaluation and Design ofAirport and Highway
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the
Pavements
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
D1196/D1196M Test Method for Nonrepetitive Static Plate
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
Load Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement Components,
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
for Use in Evaluation and Design ofAirport and Highway
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
Pavements
1 2
ThisguideisunderthejurisdictionofASTMCommitteeE50onEnvironmental For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Assessment, Risk Management and CorrectiveAction and is the direct responsibil- contact ASTM Customer Service at [e-mail]. For Annual Book of ASTM
ity of Subcommittee E50.03 on Beneficial Use. Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Current edition approved Sept. 1, 2019. Published September 2019. Originally the ASTM website.
approved in 2004. Last previous edition approved in 2014 as E2278–14. DOI: The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
10.1520/E2277-14R19. www.astm.org.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2277 − 14 (2019)
D1452 Practice for Soil Exploration and Sampling byAuger G57 Test Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity
Borings Using the Wenner Four-Electrode Method
D1556 Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in
2.2 AASHTO Standards:
Place by Sand-Cone Method
T 288 Determining Minimum Laboratory Soil Resistivity
D1557 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Character-
T 289 Determining pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion Testing
istics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft
T 290 Determining Water Soluble Sulfate Ion Content in
(2,700 kN-m/m ))
Soil
D1586 Test Method for Standard PenetrationTest (SPT) and
T 291 Determining Water Soluble Chloride Ion Content in
Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils
Soil
D1883 Test Method for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of 5
2.3 U.S. EPA Standard:
Laboratory-Compacted Soils
SW 846 Test Methods for Evaluationg Solid Waste:
D2166 Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength
Physical/Chemical Methods
of Cohesive Soil
2.4 OSHA Standard:
D2167 Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in
29 CFR Part 1910.1200 Hazard Communication
Place by the Rubber Balloon Method
2.5 AASHOTO Standard:
D2216 Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water
PP059–09–UL Standard Practice for Coal Combustion Fly
(Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass
Ash for Embankments
D2435 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation
Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading
3. Terminology
D2844 Test Method for Resistance R-Value and Expansion
3.1 Definitions—For definitions related to coal combustion
Pressure of Compacted Soils
products (CCPs), see Terminology E2201. For definitions
D2850 Test Method for Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial
related to geotechnical properties see Terminology D653.
Compression Test on Cohesive Soils
D2922 Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
in Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth) (With-
3.2.1 beneficial use, n—projects that use CCPs in a manner
drawn 2007)
that meets the design specification, conserves natural resources
D3550 Practice for Thick Wall, Ring-Lined, Split Barrel,
and energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and protects
Drive Sampling of Soils
human health and the environment.
D3877 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Expansion,
3.2.2 CCP engineered structural fill, n—engineered fill with
Shrinkage, and Uplift Pressure of Soil-Lime Mixtures
a projected beneficial end use that is typically constructed in
(Withdrawn 2017)
layers of CCPs with uniform thickness or blended with other
D3987 Practice for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with
materials and compacted to a desired unit weight (density) in a
Water
manner to control the compressibility, strength, and hydraulic
D4253 Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and Unit
conductivity of the fill and used in lieu of unconfined natural
Weight of Soils Using a Vibratory Table
soils or aggregate.
D4254 Test Methods for Minimum Index Density and Unit
3.2.2.1 Discussion—Engineered structural fills do not in-
Weight of Soils and Calculation of Relative Density
clude base course, subbase, subgrade, utility trench backfill,
D4429 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of
and other unconfined geotechnical applications. See Terminol-
Soils in Place (Withdrawn 2018)
ogy D653 for definitions of base course, subbase, and sub-
D4767 Test Method for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial
grade.
Compression Test for Cohesive Soils
3.2.3 pozzolans, n—siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
D4959 Test Method for Determination of Water Content of
materials that in themselves possess little or no cementitious
Soil By Direct Heating
value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
D4972 Test Methods for pH of Soils
moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ambient
D5084 Test Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Con-
temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious
ductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a Flexible
properties.
Wall Permeameter
D5239 Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in Soil
Stabilization
Interim Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling
D5550 Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
and Testing, Part II, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Gas Pycnometer Officials (AASHTO), 444 N. Capitol St., NW, Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001,
http://www.transportation.org.
D5759 Guide for Characterization of Coal Fly Ash and
AvailablefromUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),William
Clean Coal Combustion Fly Ash for Potential Uses
Jefferson Clinton Bldg., 1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20004,
D7181 Test Method for Consolidated DrainedTriaxial Com-
http://www.epa.gov.
U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety & Health Administration, 200
pression Test for Soils
Constitution Ave., Washington, DC 20210.
E2201 Terminology for Coal Combustion Products
Available from American Association of State Highway and Transportation
G51 Test Method for Measuring pH of Soil for Use in
Officials (AASHTO), 444 N. Capitol St., NW, Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001,
Corrosion Testing http://www.transportation.org.
E2277 − 14 (2019)
3.2.4 stabilized CCPs, n—CCPs that are self-cementing determine any local or state guidance, policies, or regulations
alone or blended with calcium hydroxide or cementitious pertaining to the use of CCPs.
binder to induce or enhance a pozzolanic reaction and increase
5. Environmental Aspects and Considerations
strength; use of a cementitious binder can also reduce, but will
not eliminate, leaching of trace metals.
5.1 General—As part of the design phase, it is incumbent
3.2.4.1 Discussion—See also Specification C593 and Prac- upon the designer or registered professional to evaluate the
tice D5239 for additional guidance.
CCPs and to assess the site specific characteristics of a project
to include appropriate measures to address potential environ-
3.2.5 registered professional, n—a person licensed, or oth-
mental impacts. In addition to state or local guidance, screen-
erwise approved by the state or local government, to manage
ing procedures or analysis techniques should be employed as
and certify engineering or environmental projects.
appropriate to determine, what, if any potential environmental
3.2.5.1 Discussion—Thisprofessionalmayinclude,butmay
risks need to be considered when using CCPs for engineered
not be limited to, a Professional Engineer (PE) or Professional
structural fills. Evaluation should include consideration of
Geologist (PG).
materials, geography, topography, hydrology, climatology,
habitat, existing site conditions, and end use of the land. Fig. 1
4. Significance and Use
and Table 1, depict a decision flow diagram that illustrates the
4.1 General:
potential steps for the project geotechnical and environmental
4.1.1 Many CCPs are suitable materials for the construction
evaluation.
of engineered structural fills. CCPs may be used as: structural
5.2 Materials Characterization—Many CCP materials have
fill for building sites and foundations; embankments for
been effectively used for beneficial reuse in engineered struc-
highways and railroads, road bases, dikes, and levees; and in
tural fills and have been shown to have little or no potential for
any other application requiring a compacted fill material.Their
releasing constituents to the environment when placed and
low unit weight, relatively high shear strength, ease of
compacted at the proper moisture content and with suitable
handling, and compaction make CCPs useful as fill material.
engineering controls. CCPs contain constituents that may have
However, the specific engineering and environmental proper-
the potential to leach into the environment if not properly
ties of these materials can vary from source to source and must
managed. Factors that affect the potential of CCPs to impact
be evaluated for each material, or combination of materials, to
the environment are the presence of constituents of concern,
be used for an engineered structural fill. Information contained
potential for these constituents to become available in the
in Guide D5759 may be applicable to some CCPs to be used in
environment and the presence of complete exposure pathways
engineered structural fills.AASHTO Standard Practice PP059-
for human or ecological receptors, or both.
09-UL also addresses the use of coal combustion fly ash in
5.2.1 Safety Classification—In consideration of the different
embankments. The requirements for the type of CCPs that can
types of CCPs that may be used in the construction of
be used for specific engineered structural fills may also vary
engineered structural fills the project owner and designer
because of local site conditions or the intended use of the fill,
should prepare or obtain Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) based on
or both. Environmental considerations are addressed in Section
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA’s)
5.
Hazard Communication Standard, 29 CFR Part 1910.1200 and
4.1.2 CCPs can be a cost-effective fill material. In many
consider the latest OSHAguidance. If the SDS identifies raises
areas, they are available in bulk quantities at a reasonable cost.
areas of human health or environmental concern, then the
The use of CCPs conserves other resources and reduces the
project owner or designer may need to consider additional
expenditures required for the purchase, permitting, and opera-
worker safety precautions, conduct additional site specific
tion of a soil borrow pit. CCPs often can be delivered to a job
environmental and human health investigation, or additional
site at near optimum moisture content and generally do not
testing, or a combination thereof, to determine the constituents
require additional crushing, screening, or processing as com-
in the fill to migrate to an environmental receptor through a
pared to comparable native materials.
complete migration pathway. An SDS alone will not identify
4.1.3 Use of CCPs conserves natural resources by avoiding
all human health and environmental concerns but may serve as
extractionorminingofsoils,aggregates,orsimilarfillmaterial
a screening tool.
that also conserves energy and reduces greenhouse gas emis-
5.3 Beneficial Use Site Evaluation—The registered profes-
sions.
sional shall evaluate if the use of CCPs at a specific engineered
4.1.4 The volume of beneficially used CCPs preserves
structural fill project can be implemented in manner that is
valuable landfill space.
protective of human health and the environment. The geotech-
4.2 Regulatory Framework:
nical and environmental evaluation of the proposed site for an
4.2.1 Federal—Currently, there are no federal regulations
engineeredstructuralfillshallincludeconsiderationofthestate
addressing the beneficial use of CCPs. States and local juris-
or local requirements for CCP use, screening procedures to
dictions have oversight of CCPmanagement and beneficial use
determine site suitability, laboratory testing or field analysis, or
activities within their states
a combination thereof, to determine geochemical properties of
4.2.2 State and Local Jurisdictions—Laws and regulations theCCPsandtheircompatibilitytothepropertiesoftheon-site
regarding the use of CCPs vary by state and local jurisdictions. soils and conditions. The preliminary site screening or testing
It is incumbent upon the project owner and designer to or both should address physical and chemical characteristics of
E2277 − 14 (2019)
FIG. 1 Environmental Flow Chart CCP Engineered Structural Fills
the CCPs, leaching potential of the CCPs, the volume of CCPs risk is identified, then the registered professional will need to
to be used, and the proximity of CCPs to surface or ground provide notice to the project owner and designer that
water or both. The environmental evaluation may include an
engineering, controls, institutional controls, or other measures
exposure-pathway analysis as provided in the appropriate
federal, state, or local regulatory guidance. If an unacceptable
E2277 − 14 (2019)
TABLE 1 Coal Combustion Products (CCPs) -- Environmental Flow Chart
Each element, or step, of the CCPs Environmental Flow Chart is numbered for reference. Individual elements of the flow chart are described below and presented
graphically in Figures 1a through 1c. In some cases examples are provided; these examples are not intended as exhaustive lists.
1a Does the Application Meet Federal/State/Local Permitting Criteria?
Develop a checklist of State and local permits and restrictions that may apply.
If Yes, proceed to 1b.
If No, additional analysis may be required to support a variance request.
1b Does the Application Conform to Company Policies?
Develop a checklist of company policies for CCP reuse and recycling that may apply to structural fill applications.
If Yes, proceed to step 2a.
If No, additional analysis may be required to determine if an exception to the policy is warranted.
2a Is the Application Outside the 100-year Flood Plain?
Placement of a structural fill containing CCPs within a 100-year flood plain potentially subjects the material to flooding, which can lead to erosion, partial
saturation of the CCR, and/or stability concerns. Additional environmental evaluation and/or site engineering is warranted for applications in floodplains.
If Yes, proceed to step 2b.
If No, additional environmental investigation and/or engineering may be warranted.
2b Is the CCP Placement Area Dry and Expected to be Above the Seasonal High Groundwater Table?
Contact with water should be minimized both during placement and after project completion. Applications potentially subject to inflows other than infiltration (for
example, surface water, seeps, perched water, or groundwater) require more detailed site investigation and possibly engineering controls to intercept inflows.
Areas where shallow groundwater may saturate the CCP should be avoided. Site and groundwater conditions that are typically considered prior to designof
engineered fills utilizing CCPs include:
• Ponds, streams, and other permanent water bodies; excluding temporary ponds caused by recent rains and poor drainage. Soil Conservation Service maps
can be used to depict poorlydrained soils and surface water features and can be used to supplement field inspection.
• Wetlands, whether delineated or not, which can be identified by certain plant species, such as cattails, and by the presence of hydric soils or peat.
• Springs, which indicate a discharge of groundwater—perched zone or water table—at the land surface.
• Shallow groundwater, which can be estimated by local well logs, state reports, and literature sources.
If Yes, proceed to step 3a.
If No, additional environmental evaluation and/or engineering design may be warranted.
3a Has an Environmental Evaluation been Performed on or Near the Site?
An environmental evaluation will help identify any pre-existing environmental conditions. The extent of environmental evaluation will vary from site-to-site
depending on the CCP characteristics, and a consideration of natural conditions and future use.
If Yes, proceed to step 3b.
If No, additional environmental evaluation and/or engineering design may be warranted.
3b Is there Evidence of Significant Historic Contamination?
A review of historical records and a site walkthrough will typically identify if there is evidence of significant historic contamination. It is common practice to
avoid sites with historic contamination for engineered structural fills utilizing CCPs.
If Yes, additional environmental investigation and/or engineering may be are warranted.
If No, proceed to step 3c.
3c Has Leachability or Material Characterization Testing been Performed?
The CCP material is typically tested using a variety of leachability tests including the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) or the (Synthetic
Precipitation Leaching Procedure) SPLP. Most State regulatory agencies have maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for groundwater protection that have been
identified for the use and placement of CCPs as a beneficial use material. For engineered structural fill projects using CCPs in States that do not have
requirements, the regulatory guidelines for groundwater protection defaults to the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and Federal MCLs. The type and
extent of leachability or material characterization testing that is performed should be in accordance with both State and Federal drinking water standards. For
CCPs that have leachate characteristics that exceed the applicable MCLs of concern, the CCP should be placed in a encapsulated or engineered system that
is designed to prevent migration of constituents or to mitigate exposure.
If Yes, proceed to step 4.
If No, additional environmental investigation and/or engineering are may be warranted.
4 Verify that Slope Stability Analysis of the Proposed Project has been Performed
For small sites, and for sites with flat to moderate slopes, slope stability is not typically a special concern. However, some structural fill sites may have
relatively steep slopes, such as sidehill fills in steep valleys. In these cases, additional site investigation may be required to determine likelihood of water
inflows that could lead to instability, and additional engineering may be required to ensure that the fill will not erode, slump, or otherwise structurally fail over
time.
If Yes, proceed to step 5.
If No, additional environmental investigation and/or engineering are typically required.
5 Initiate Design and Permitting of an CCP Engineered Structural
Fill The completion of the Environmental Flow Chart will typically make the project Owner, Developer and Contractor aware of Federal and State regulatory
requirements that are necessary to complete a properly designed structural fill that utilize CCPs. These regulatory and permitting requirements should be
followed during the design of the CCP engineered structural fill.
will need to be evaluated and implemented to reduce this risk health concern that should be accounted for in the design and
to an acceptable level or, if not, cease continuing with the
construction of a CCP engineered structural fill project. In
project.
addition, these procedures can be used to evaluate whether
engineered solutions can be implemented to provide adequate
5.4 Environmental Procedures—A variety of technical and
protection for human health and the environment so that the
regulatory procedures are available to project owners and
project can proceed. It is possible that project, site location or
designers of engineered structural fills to evaluate the suitabil-
environmental factors or both may prohibit implementation of
ity of CCPs for use in a project as well as to determine if the
a given project. Specific environmental guidance that pertains
site specific project design and location meet state and local
criteria. These procedures typically consider a wide variety of to the site-specific construction and placement of engineered
criteria for identifying factors of environmental and human structural fills is found in Section 9.
E2277 − 14 (2019)
5.4.1 In addition to the process outlined in Fig. 1, there are engineering properties that shall be considered in the design of
otherASTM International test methods and guides can be used the CCP engineered structural fill. These general engineering
for the geotechnical, environmental evaluation, and civil de- properties are discussed in the following sections.
sign of engineered structural fills using CCPs. These methods
6.2 Bulk Density—CCPs have relatively low unit weights.
are listed according their use and applicability as follows:
Thelowunitweightofthesematerialscanbeadvantageousfor
(1) Practice D1452
some structural fill applications. The lighter weight material
(2) Test Method D1586
will reduce the stress on weak layers or zones of soft
(3) Test Methods D2435
(4) Test Method D2850 foundationsoilssuchaspoorlyconsolidatedorlandslide-prone
(5) Practice D5759
soils. Additionally, the low unit weight of these materials will
reduce transportation costs since less tonnage of material is
5.4.2 Leaching Characteristics of CCPs-Test Method
hauled to fill a given volume.
D3987—Other leaching test procedures may be used provided
the leaching test reasonably replicates the type of leaching
6.3 Compaction Characteristics—Most CCPs can be placed
expected under actual site conditions during placement and
and compacted in a manner similar to soil and aggregate fill
after completion of the project. Approved procedures are
materials. Most CCPs exhibit very little cohesion and are not
included in SW 846. These procedures provide data to deter-
sensitive to variations in moisture contents as are natural
mine potential and predict possible constituent releases. State
cohesive soils.
or local agencies may have specific or preferred testing
6.4 Grain Size and Gradation—variations in grain size
procedures that are should be used.
affect the bulk density of CCPs and gradation can change over
5.5 Design Considerations—Many state and local jurisdic-
time after successive wetting and drying cycles of the CCPs.
tions require that a registered professional be involved in the
6.5 Strength:
technical evaluation, siting, design, and construction of CCP
6.5.1 Shear Strength—For non-self-cementing CCPs, shear
engineered structural fills. In addition, Sections 7 and Section
strength is derived primarily from internal friction. Typical
8 include a list of the environmental and human health
values for angles of shear strength for non-self-cementing fly
considerations across all media that should be accounted for in
ash are higher than many natural fine-grained soils. These
the engineered structural fill design process. A summary of
ashes are non-cohesive and, although the ash may appear
these potential project specific factors include, but is not
cohesive in a partially saturated state, this effect is lost when
limited to:
the material is either dried or saturated.
Chemical composition
6.5.1.1 Because of its irregular shape, the shear strength of
Leaching properties of the CCPs;
bottom ash is typically greater than fly ash and is similar to the
Particle size and shear strength;
Bearing capacity and settlement;
shear strength of natural materials of similar gradation.
Permeability;
However, friable bottom ash may exhibit lower shear strength
Moisture and density characteristics;
than natural materials of similar gradation.
Site suitability and beneficial reuse potential;
Location relative to flood plain, floodways, and protected drainage areas;
6.5.2 Compressive Strength—CCPs that are self-cementing
Presence or absence of groundwater receptors;
undergoacementingactionthatincreaseswithtime.Hydration
Location relative to wetlands, unstable areas, and/or active faults;
of dry self-cementing fly ash commences immediately upon
Presence or absence of seasonally high groundwater table;
Site drainage and erosion control;
exposure to water and higher compressive strengths will be
Protection of water resources;
attainedwhentheCCPsareplacedandcompactedimmediately
Presence or absence of karst geology;
following addition of water. If too much time lapses, the CCP
Protection of surface slopes from erosion and runoff;
Stormwater management; and
particles can become cemented in a loose state, reducing the
Climatic conditions including rainfall and freeze thaw impacts.
compacted density and strength.
5.6 End Use of the Land—When designing an engineered
6.6 Consolidation Characteristics—Structural fills con-
structuralfill,theenduseofthelandisonecomponentthatwill
structed using non- self-cementing CCPs typically exhibit
affect the potential for the use of CCPs. For example, if a
small amounts of time-dependent, post-construction consolida-
project provides for a pavement cover such as for road
tion. This is because excess pore water pressures dissipate
construction or parking, then the potential for leaching will be
relativelyrapidly,andthus,mostoftheembankmentsettlement
reduced because the low permeability cover will reduce the
or deformation occurs as a result of elastic deformation of the
amount of infiltration. Similarly, the construction of buildings
material, rather than by classical consolidation. Most deforma-
or structures on top of the engineered fill will reduce water
tioncausedbythemassofthefillorstructurethereongenerally
infiltration.Incorporationoftopsoilorgroundcoveronthefinal
occurs during construction or during load application and the
landsurfacecanminimizewaterinfiltrationifproperlyplanned
design can accommodate this deformation using traditional
and constructed. Placement of an appropriate cover over the
analytical methods.
engineered structural fill will reduce the generation of wind
6.6.1 Bottom ash is usually a free-draining material that can
borne constituents and potential migration to receptors.
be compacted into a relatively dense, incompressible mass. For
these reasons, structural fills constructed of bottom ash also
6. Engineering Properties and Behavior
typically exhibit small amounts of time-dependent, post-
6.1 General—Structuralfillsmaybeconstructedwithoneor construction consolidation or deformation, with most deforma-
more types of CCPs, each of which typically exhibits unique tion occurring during construction or load application.
E2277 − 14 (2019)
6.6.2 Self-cementing fly ash typically exhibits minimal less than water and float.Agitation of the slurry may be needed
post-construction consolidation or deformation as a result of to keep the particles in suspension so that the average specific
cementing and solidification of the fly ash. gravity can be obtained. Alternately for this ash and self-
6.6.3 Some self-cementing fly ash may swell with time. In cementing fly ash, Test Method C188, which uses kerosene as
the fluid, may be used.
7.3.8,guidanceisprovidedonevaluatingtheswellingpotential
of self-cementing fly ash.
NOTE 2—Other tests, such as Test Method D5550, may be more
applicable to certain types of CCPs.
6.7 Permeability—The permeability of non-self-cementing
fly ash is similar to values observed for natural silty soils.
7.3.3 Water Content—Test Method D2216. For CCPs con-
6.7.1 Self-cementing fly ash is relatively impermeable, with
siderloweringthedryingtemperatureto140°F(60°C)toavoid
permeability values similar to natural clays.
driving off the water of hydration.
6.7.2 Bottom ash is typically as permeable as granular soils
7.3.4 Compaction:
of similar gradation.
7.3.4.1 FlyAsh—TestMethodD698,D1557,orD5759—For
6.8 Liquefaction and Frost Heave—Fine-grained, non-
dry self-cementing fly ash, the time interval between wetting
cohesive materials such as fly ash are susceptible to liquefac-
and compaction in the laboratory should be similar to that
tion and frost heave when saturated. When used in ponds or
anticipated during construction to account for the influence of
embankments, additional design analysis of underlying soils
the rate of hydration on compaction characteristics.
conditions and potential water ingress may be required to
7.3.4.2 Bottom Ash—Test Methods D4253 and D4254 may
ensure degradation does not occur over time.
be used for the determination of maximum and minimum
density of coarse-grained bottom ashes that do not exhibit a
NOTE 1—Fly ash fills are normally designed to be well drained or are
moisture-density relationship.
located in areas where they are not subject to saturation or infiltration by
surface or ground water.
7.3.5 Strength:
6.8.1 Bottom ash is not typically susceptible to either
7.3.5.1 Shear Strength Characteristics—The shear strength
liquefaction or frost heave. However, some of the finer bottom properties of CCPs can be tested using the following test
ash materials may behave quite similarly to fly ash and would
...