ISO 22526-4:2023

Plastics — Carbon and environmental footprint of biobased plastics — Part 4: Environmental (total) footprint (Life cycle assessment)

This document provides life cycle assessment (LCA) requirements and guidance to assess impacts over the life cycle of biobased plastic products, materials and polymer resins, which are partly or wholly based on biobased constituents. The applications of LCA as such are outside the scope of this document. Clarifications, considerations, practices, simplifications and options for the different applications, are also beyond the scope of this document. In addition, this document can be applied in studies that do not cover the whole life cycle, with justification, for example in the case of business-to-business information, such as cradle-to-gate studies, gate-to-gate studies, and specific parts of the life cycle (e.g. waste management, components of a product). For these studies, most requirements of this document are applicable (e.g. data quality, collection and calculation as well as allocation and critical review), but not all the requirements for the system boundary.

Plastiques — Empreinte carbone et environnementale des plastiques biosourcés — Partie 4: Empreinte environnementale (totale) (Analyse de cycle de vie)

General Information

• Status: Published
• Publication Date: 31-May-2023
• ICS: 13.020.40 - Pollution, pollution control and conservation
• ICS: 83.080.01 - Plastics in general
• Technical Committee: ISO/TC 61/SC 14 - Environmental aspects
• Drafting Committee: ISO/TC 61/SC 14/WG 3 - Biobased plastics
• Current Stage: 6060 - International Standard published
• Start Date: 01-Jun-2023
• Due Date: 07-Feb-2023
• Completion Date: 01-Jun-2023

Overview - ISO 22526-4:2023 (Environmental footprint / LCA for biobased plastics)

ISO 22526-4:2023 provides requirements and guidance for conducting a life cycle assessment (LCA) to determine the environmental (total) footprint of plastics that are partly or wholly of biobased origin. The standard focuses on how to handle the biogenic specificities within an LCA while requiring that the whole product system (not only the biobased fraction) is assessed. It supports studies covering full life cycles and, with justification, partial scopes such as cradle-to-gate or gate-to-gate analyses for business-to-business information.

Key technical topics and requirements

• LCA methodology and scope: Aligns with ISO 14040/14044 principles; clearly define goal, functional unit and system boundaries.
• Life Cycle Inventory (LCI): Emphasis on data quality, collection and modelling for biomass-based systems, including:
  • Geographical and temporal representativeness of biomass acquisition phases
  • Allocation procedures for co-products
  • Inventory of fossil and biogenic carbon flows
  • Guidance on land use and water use accounting
• Modelling guidance: Specific guidance for agriculture, forestry and aquaculture systems and for product use-phase and end-of-life modelling when biobased inputs are involved.
• Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA): Selection of impact categories and indicators relevant to biobased plastics (e.g., climate change treatment for fossil vs. biogenic carbon, land-use impacts, water impacts). Rules for weighting and comparative assertions intended for public disclosure.
• Interpretation, reporting and critical review: Requirements for transparent reporting, documentation of assumptions (e.g., carbon storage), and when a critical independent review is needed.

Practical applications and users

ISO 22526-4:2023 is practical for:

• Plastics manufacturers producing biobased polymer resins and products
• LCA practitioners, sustainability consultants and environmental managers conducting LCAs for biobased plastics
• Product designers and R&D teams assessing alternatives and material choices
• Procurement teams and B2B communicators preparing cradle-to-gate declarations
• Regulators and auditors evaluating environmental claims involving biobased content

Use cases include product environmental footprinting, supply‑chain assessments, comparative supplier evaluations (with caution and adherence to reporting rules), and designing end-of-life or feedstock substitution strategies.

Related standards

Relevant referenced documents include:

• ISO 14040 / ISO 14044 (LCA principles and requirements)
• ISO 14025 (Type III environmental declarations)
• ISO/TR 21960, ISO 472, EN 16575, EN 16760

Keywords: ISO 22526-4:2023, biobased plastics, life cycle assessment, LCA, environmental footprint, carbon footprint, cradle-to-gate, LCI, LCIA, biogenic carbon, land use, water use.

Standards Content (Sample)

INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 22526-4
First edition
2023-06
Plastics — Carbon and environmental
footprint of biobased plastics —
Part 4:
Environmental (total) footprint (Life
cycle assessment)
Plastiques — Empreinte carbone et environnementale des plastiques
biosourcés —
Partie 4: Empreinte environnementale (totale) (Analyse de cycle de
vie)
Reference number
© ISO 2023
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on
the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address below
or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
ISO copyright office
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CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
Phone: [phone]
Email: [e-mail]
Website: www.iso.org
Published in Switzerland
ii
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 Methodology for LCA of biobased products . 2
4.1 General description of an LCA . 2
4.2 General aspects of LCA for biobased plastic products . 2
4.3 Goal and scope of the LCA study . 3
4.3.1 Goal of the LCA study . 3
4.3.2 Scope of the LCA study . 3
5 Life cycle inventory (LCI) . 5
5.1 General . 5
5.2 Sources of data. 6
5.2.1 General . 6
5.2.2 Geographical data . 6
5.2.3 Temporal data . 6
5.3 Allocation procedure . 6
5.4 LCI — Collecting data and modelling . 7
5.4.1 Considerations for resource use . 7
5.4.2 Land use . 8
5.4.3 Water inventory . 9
5.5 Inventory of fossil and biogenic carbon flows . 11
5.6 Guidance for modelling agro-, forestry and aquaculture systems . 11
5.6.1 Modelling agricultural systems . 11
5.6.2 Modelling forestry systems . 14
5.6.3 Modelling aquaculture systems . 15
5.6.4 Modelling the use-phase in LCAs of biobased products .15
5.6.5 Modelling end-of-life processes in LCAs of biobased products .15
6 Life cycle impacts assessment (LCIA) .16
6.1 Impact categories and impact indicators . 16
6.1.1 General . 16
6.1.2 Selection of impact categories . 16
6.1.3 Applicability of methods and data . 16
6.1.4 Weighting and comparative assertions disclosed to the public . 17
6.2 Guidelines for specific impact indicators . 17
6.2.1 Treatment of fossil and biogenic carbon in assessing climate change . 17
6.2.2 Land use . 17
6.2.3 Impact of water use . . 18
7 Interpretation and reporting of LCA .18
7.1 Interpretation . 18
7.2 Reporting of LCA . . 19
7.3 Critical review . 19
Annex A (informative) Example of allocation on glycerol .20
Annex B (informative) Examples of fossil and biogenic carbon flows accounting and
communication .21
Annex C (informative) Examples of impact categories and impact indicators .23
Bibliography .25
iii
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
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ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO document should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
ISO draws attention to the possibility that the implementation of this document may involve the use
of (a) patent(s). ISO takes no position concerning the evidence, validity or applicability of any claimed
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expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to
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www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 61, Plastics, Subcommittee SC 14,
Environmental aspects.
A list of all parts in the ISO 22526 series can be found on the ISO website.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html.
iv
Introduction
Increased use of biomass resources for manufacturing plastic products can be effective in reducing
global warming and the depletion of fossil resources.
Current plastic products are composed of biobased synthetic polymers, fossil-based synthetic polymers,
natural polymers and additives that can include biobased materials.
Biobased plastics refer to plastics that contain materials wholly or partly of biogenic origin.
v
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 22526-4:2023(E)
Plastics — Carbon and environmental footprint of
biobased plastics —
Part 4:
Environmental (total) footprint (Life cycle assessment)
1 Scope
This document provides life cycle assessment (LCA) requirements and guidance to assess impacts over
the life cycle of biobased plastic products, materials and polymer resins, which are partly or wholly
based on biobased constituents.
The applications of LCA as such are outside the scope of this document. Clarifications, considerations,
practices, simplifications and options for the different applications, are also beyond the scope of this
document.
In addition, this document can be applied in studies that do not cover the whole life cycle, with
justification, for example in the case of business-to-business information, such as cradle-to-gate
studies, gate-to-gate studies, and specific parts of the life cycle (e.g. waste management, components
of a product). For these studies, most requirements of this document are applicable (e.g. data quality,
collection and calculation as well as allocation and critical review), but not all the requirements for the
system boundary.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 472, Plastics — Vocabulary
ISO 14025, Environmental labels and declarations — Type III environmental declarations — Principles and
procedures
ISO 14040:2006, Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework
ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Requirements and guidelines
ISO/TR 21960, Plastics — Environmental aspects — State of knowledge and methodologies
EN 16575, Bio-based products — Vocabulary
EN 16760, Bio-based products — Life cycle assessment
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 472, ISO 14040, ISO 14044,
EN 16575, EN 16760 and ISO/TR 21960 apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https:// www .electropedia .org/
4 Methodology for LCA of biobased products
4.1 General description of an LCA
The general description of life cycle assessment is defined in ISO 14040:2006, Clause 4.
4.2 General aspects of LCA for biobased plastic products
The LCA of a biobased plastic product shall cover the whole product, not only the biobased part; see
Figure 1. However, the focus of this document is on how to handle the specificities of the biobased part
of the product.
Figure 1 — Example of a product system of a biobased plastic product which includes biomass
as well as non-biogenic material feedstocks
NOTE 1 The boxes linked with bold arrows in Figure 1 represent the flows of biobased products (partly or
fully derived from biomass) that can be raw materials, intermediary products and final product.
NOTE 2 For simplification purposes, transportation steps have not been reported in Figure 1, but
transportation can occur within or between any of the unit processes.
This document provides requirements and guidelines for biobased products: see 4.3, Clause 5, Clause 6
and Clause 7.
An LCA for a biobased product shall include the four phases of LCA. LCA requirements and guidelines
are provided in ISO 14044:2006, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5.
This document provides further guidance on the following, which can be important for biobased plastic
products, due to their biomass origin:
— geographical (see 5.2.2) and temporal scope (see 5.2.3) to be representative for the biomass
acquisition phase considering agricultural, forest and aquaculture specificities;
— allocation procedures (see 5.3) as the production stages typically generates co-products;
— consideration for resource elementary flows (see 5.4.1);
— data collection and modelling for land use (see 5.4.2), water use (see 5.4.3), and fossil and biogenic
carbon flows (see 5.5);
— modelling of agriculture and aquaculture systems (see 5.6) and
— inventory and modelling requirements for biobased plastic products end-of-life (see 5.6.4).
The ISO 22526 series focuses on biobased products for industrial application; food, feed and energy are
excluded from the scope. However, the guidelines and requirements for LCA provided in this document
can be applied to any product derived from biomass, irrespective of the application.
4.3 Goal and scope of the LCA study
4.3.1 Goal of the LCA study
When defining the goal of the LCA study, the requirements of ISO 14040:2006, 5.2.1 and ISO 14044:2006,
4.2.2 and 4.2.3 shall apply.
There is no single solution as to how LCA can be best applied, it depends on the goal of the LCA and on
each organization size and culture, its products, the strategy, the internal systems, tools and procedures
and the external drivers.
In defining the goal of an LCA, the following items shall be clearly stated:
— the intended application of the study;
— the reasons for carrying out the study;
— the intended audience, i.e. to whom the results of the study are intended to be communicated; and
— whether the results are intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to
the public.
4.3.2 Scope of the LCA study
4.3.2.1 General
The scope should be sufficiently well-defined to ensure that the breadth, depth and detail of the study
are compatible and sufficient to address the stated goal.
In addition to the definition of the scope of the LCA study in ISO 14044:2006, 4.2.3, the limitations,
assumptions and methods to assess issues specific to biobased products should be explained (e.g.
assumptions for use stage, for end-of-life stage, carbon storage).
In some cases, the goal and scope of the study may be revised due to unforeseen limitations, constraints
or as a result of additional information. Such modifications, together with their justification, should be
documented.
It shall be determined which impact categories, category indicators and characterization models
are included within the LCA study. The selection of impact categories, category indicators and
characterization models used in the LCIA methodology shall be consistent with the goal of the study
and considered as described in ISO 14044:2006, 4.4.2.2.
4.3.2.2 Function and functional unit
In defining the functional unit, the requirements of ISO 14040:2006, 5.2.2 and ISO 14044:2006, 4.2.3.2
shall apply.
The scope of an LCA shall clearly specify the function (performance characteristics) of the product
system being studied. The functional unit shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the study. One
of the primary purposes of a functional unit is to provide a reference to which the input and output
data are related. This reference is necessary to ensure comparability of LCA results, in particular
when different systems are being assessed to enable comparison on a common basis. Therefore, the
functional unit shall be clearly defined and measurable.
An appropriate reference flow shall be determined in relation to the functional unit. The quantitative
input and output data collected in support of the analysis shall be calculated in relation to this flow.
For biobased products which are intermediates or which can serve several functions or services, it is
recommended to use a reference flow such as weight or volume (e.g. 1 kg of product), and to provide
information whether it refers to dry matter weight, gross weight, etc.
EXAMPLE In the function of drying hands, both a paper towel and an air-dryer system are studied. The
selected functional unit can be expressed in terms of the identical number of pairs of hands dried for both
systems. For each system, it is possible to determine the reference flow, e.g. the average mass of paper or the
average volume of hot air required for one pair of hand-dry, respectively. For both systems, it is possible to
compile an inventory of inputs and outputs on the basis of the reference flows. At its simplest level, in the case of
paper towel, this is related to the paper consumed. In the case of the air-dryer, this is related to the mass of hot
air needed to dry the hands (copied from ISO 14040:2006, 5.2.2).
4.3.2.3 System boundary
In defining the system boundary, the requirements of ISO 14040:2006, 5.2.3 and ISO 14044:2006,
4.2.3.3 shall apply.
The system boundary shall be explained clearly and in an unambiguous way, preferably in a flow chart
figure. The exclusion of any life cycle stage shall be documented and explained.
LCA technique with proper justification may be applied in studies that are not LCA or LCI studies.
Examples are:
— cradle-to-gate studies;
— gate-to-gate studies; and
— specific parts of the life cycle (e.g. waste management, components of a product).
4.3.2.4 Cut-off criteria
When using cut-off criteria to decide on inclusion of inputs and outputs, the requirements of
ISO 14044:2006, 4.2.3.3.3 shall apply.
The choice of elements of the physical system to be modelled depends on the goal and scope definition
of the study, its intended application and audience, the assumptions made, data and cost constraints,
and cut-off criteria. The models used should be described and the assumptions underlying those choices
should be identified. The cut-off criteria used within a study should be clearly understood and defined
within the goal and scope definition phase.
In principle, all elementary and technosphere flows should be accounted for. If not, mass, energy and
environmental significance should be used to determine cut-off criteria. The final report shall include
an estimation of completeness, based on:
— Mass cut-off (in % of total product mass): best estimation of the mass of all non-accounted
components of the product.
— Energy cut-off (in % of total energy consumption): best estimation of all energy consumption of
non-accounted mass inputs.
— Environmental significance: decisions on cut-off criteria should be based on best knowledge of
environmental significance. Such information may, for example, be sought on safety data sheets for
toxicological and ecotoxicological effects of a product where substance classification can guide on
possible cut-offs regarding such categories. For assessment of other relevant environmental impacts
also other sources of information should be looked for, such as emission declaration, approval
documentation, etc. Inputs such as transport of staff, or consumer transport may be excluded as
where it is established that they are insignificant.
Such simplifications shall be explicitly stated in the study report along with any supporting
documentation showing these calculations, specifying the names of any flows which have not been
taken into consideration.
4.3.2.5 LCIA methodology and types of impacts
The choices of which impact categories, category indicators and characterization models are selected
within the LCA study shall be explained.
4.3.2.6 Data quality
Data quality requirements shall be specified to enable the goal and scope of the LCA to be met and
should address what is listed in ISO 14044:2006, 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.2.3.6.3.
Site-specific and primary data should be used when appropriate and in line with the goal and scope of
the study.
The selection of level of geographical detail should be consistent with the goal and intended use of the
LCA and be justified in view of the availability and quality of data.
4.3.2.7 Comparisons between systems
As this document provides additional guidance and requirements for biobased products, the equivalence
of the systems being compared shall be evaluated before interpreting the results. Consequently, the
scope of the study shall be defined in such a way that the systems can be compared. Systems shall be
compared using the same functional unit and equivalent methodological considerations, such as system
boundary, data quality, allocation procedures, decision rules on evaluating inputs, and outputs and
impact assessment. Any differences between systems regarding these parameters shall be identified
and reported. Based on this information a well-reasoned assessment shall be included why the study is
valid and can be performed or why a comparison is very problematic or even scientifically not allowed.
In the latter case, such a study should not be terminated, but still should be published to educate about
the limits of LCA. If the study is intended to be used for a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed
to the public, interested parties shall conduct this evaluation as a critical review.
A life cycle impact assessment is an integral part of any LCA study, but especially for studies intended to
be used in comparative assertions and be disclosed to the public, this impact assessment part shall be
performed with utmost care.
If comparative assertions are intended to be disclosed to the public, additional requirements as set in
ISO 14044 apply.
5 Life cycle inventory (LCI)
5.1 General
Inventory analysis involves data collection and calculation procedures to quantify relevant inputs and
outputs of a product system.
The process of conducting an inventory analysis is iterative. As data are collected and more is learned
about the system, new data requirements or limitations may be identified that require a change in the
data collection procedures so that the goals of the study will still be met. Sometimes, issues can be
identified that require revisions to the goal or scope of the study.
The qualitative and quantitative data for inclusion in the inventory shall be collected for each unit
process that is included within the system boundary. The collected data, whether measured, calculated
or estimated, are utilized to quantify the inputs and outputs of a unit process. All individual unit
processes should be taken up in a process flow diagram representing the studied system and so also
identifying the system boundary.
When data have been collected from public sources, the source shall be referenced. For those data that
can be significant for the conclusions of the study, details about the relevant data collection process,
the time when data have been collected, and further information about data quality indicators shall be
referenced.
If life cycle inventory data do not meet the data quality requirements, as given in 4.3.2.6, this shall be
reported.
To decrease the risk of misunderstandings (e.g. resulting in double counting when validating or reusing
the data collected), a description of each unit process shall be recorded.
Since data collection may span several reporting locations and published references, measures should
be taken to reach uniform and consistent understanding of the product systems to be modelled.
5.2 Sources of data
5.2.1 General
Sources of inventory data should be specified and transparent.
Responsible sourcing and sustainable management practices can be found in the production of biobased
raw materials. Certification schemes usually address a broad array of management and performance
aspects that can be used directly in determining elementary flows and in informing impact assessment
and interpretation.
EXAMPLE Managing conformity with standards covering fertiliser application can be linked directly to
levels of fertiliser run-off and therefore elementary flow determination.
If biomass has been produced in conformance with a relevant standard this shall be taken into account
in determining elementary flows and in impact assessment and interpretation.
The most representative data should be used and the quality of data shall always be examined in order
to guarantee that they are adequate for the purpose of the study, and that they conform with the data
quality requirements of the study.
5.2.2 Geographical data
Average data should be collected and assessed across a representative geographical area where the
specific biomass has been produced. The data and scales used should be clearly specified in the study in
order to ensure optimal transparency. Mean values by region can be used only for part of agricultural
data (contributions from fertilisers, yields, etc.), since other variables cannot yet be regionalised due to
the lack of a recognized model (e.g. N O emissions).
5.2.3 Temporal data
Time period is an important issue in LCA, as emissions to air, water and soil are subject to variation
over the management cycle of the system. The LCI should cover the relevant period in the life cycle of
the product.
For industrials processes and systems, the inventory may cover the cycle of productions, e.g. seasonal
production, start-up, maintenance, and temporary process shutdown.
For biomass production the collection of data and modelling should consider the management regime
and cropping or harvesting and crop rotation [including the positioning of the crop in the rotation], e.g.
the effect of inter- and intra-annual variation and when possible use values representing the selected
period.
Ideally, average biomass production data should be collected over a period of at least three recent
consecutive years.
5.3 Allocation procedure
The inputs and outputs shall be allocated to the different products according to clearly stated
procedures that shall be documented and explained together with the allocation procedure.
The sum of the allocated inputs and outputs of a unit process shall be equal to the inputs and outputs
of the unit process before allocation. This can be demonstrated by including a mass balance over each
individual unit process.
In line with ISO 14044, the study shall identify the processes shared with other product systems and
deal with them according to the following procedure.
Step 1: Wherever possible, allocation should be avoided by:
1) dividing the unit process to be allocated into two or more sub-processes and collecting the input
and output data related to these sub-processes; or
2) expanding the product system to include the additional functions related to the co-products, taking
into account the requirements of ISO 14044:2006, 4.2.3.3.
NOTE 1 System expansion means “expanding the product system to include additional functions”, so all
additional functions are modelled and calculated and there are multiple benefits; nothing is subtracted.
Step 2: Where allocation cannot be avoided, the inputs and outputs of the system should be partitioned
between its different products or functions in a way that reflects the underlying physical relationships
between them; i.e. they should reflect the way in which the inputs and outputs are changed by
quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system.
NOTE 2 Allocation based on the underlying physical relationship do not include, for example, simple mass or
energy allocation unless this reflects by an independent change in mass or energy of each product.
Step 3: Where physical relationship alone cannot be established or used as the basis for allocation, the
inputs should be allocated between the products and functions in a way that reflects other relationships
between them. For example, input and output data might be allocated between co-products in
proportion to the economic value of the products.
For economic allocation, an average economic value on a relevant time period should be used and the
geographical scope of the study should be considered in order to limit high variation of results.
For biobased products, the biogenic carbon content can be of key importance to determine greenhouse
gas emissions. To track biogenic carbon in a value chain, allocation based on carbon content can be used.
When allocating based on other relationships the modelled biogenic carbon flows might not reflect the
actual physical content and flows.
Whenever several alternative allocation procedures seem applicable, a sensitivity analysis shall be
conducted to illustrate the consequences of the departure from the selected approach.
Annex A provides an example of allocation and a sensitivity analysis.
5.4 LCI — Collecting data and modelling
5.4.1 Considerations for resource use
The inventory of natural resources (such as fossils and oils) in an LCA is of primary importance because
when moving from an LCI to LCIA environmental, resource depletion impacts will be associated to the
use of these natural resources.
The definition of natural resource versus raw material is decisive for biomass. Natural resources
enter the system as elementary flows, while raw materials are intermediate flows within the system.
Biomass shall be inventoried as an intermediate flow because it comes from a harvesting process. It can
be inventoried as an elementary flow where it enters the system without prior human intervention.
In LCI modelling for biobased products, it is necessary to further distinguish material use from the use
of energy.
Resources can be consumed to provide the energy needed to produce the product under consideration.
Resources can also be used as a constituent of the product itself (feedstock or reactant) or as material
inputs of the production process. These are referred to as “Resources for material use”.
5.4.2 Land use
5.4.2.1 General
Agriculture and forestry, like any other human activities, use land and at the same time these activities
influence the land they use through for example good management practices.
Land use has two aspects: land occupation and land transformation; these can both have effects on
for example biotic production potential, biodiversity, ecological soil quality, soil carbon content, soil
erosion and freshwater availability. Land use is associated with physical as well as often chemical
impacts on the soil and therefore on its fertility or production potential.
Potential impacts due to land use are captured in impact categories such as freshwater eutrophication,
acidification or climate change.
5.4.2.2 Considerations for modelling land use in LCI
5.4.2.2.1 General
In order to determine the environmental impact of a given land use it is necessary to know for what
activity the land is used and the time during which it is used for that particular purpose.
5.4.2.2.2 Area as physical unit
The area used to source the product or raw material is usually defined as land use for agricultural
and silvicultural ecosystems. For other ecosystems such as aquaculture the volume may be a relevant
measure.
5.4.2.2.3 Distinction of transformation and occupation
Land use includes both land transformation and land occupation and the quantification of land use
[1],[2]
should consider the following :
2 2
— land occupation is measured in m area times time [m x a] per functional unit;
— land transformation is measured in area changed per functional unit [m /FU].
Land use transformation addresses the quality change which is induced by changing land use type.
This quality change can be directly determined if the land use before transformation is known. The
same holds true for the transformation after the occupation period ends.
5.4.2.2.4 Identification of land use type
The determination of the classification system is decisive for the characterization of transformation
and occupation as correlations reveal:
— physical-chemical properties of eco-systems (e.g. buffer capacities);
— ecosystem services (e.g. for human use);
— land cover characteristics (e.g. different use intensities).
For inventory modelling, the initial land use and the resulting land use/land cover after occupation
should be documented.
Land use types relate to the given activity and are usually classified in schemes. These schemes can
comprehensively reveal all different land use types on a global scale or can be adapted to the spectrum
of land use types in a given region.
Land use types are specifically related to the human use (agricultural crops, forestry) and can be scaled
by the intensity of use.
In order to determine the characteristics of the transformed/occupied entity of land ecosystem and
biome, classifications are used. These differ widely in the underlying typology (examples are Holdrige
life zones, IPCC classification).
Land use and land cover are also sometimes combined, for example, in Corine land cover classes used to
monitor land use and land cover consistently in Europe.
5.4.2.2.5 Land use change in GHG accounting
While in LCI modelling land transformation and occupation is typically considered, there are LCA
applications for GHG accounting which use the concept of land use, land use change and forestry
(LULUCF) of the IPCC or the concept of direct land use change and indirect land use change (dLUC and
iLUC) which is used in the context of the European Renewable Energy Directive.
Indirect land use change considers potential land transformations, which are not caused directly by
the operator, but may be seen as response of other operators. There is currently no agreed scientific
method to characterize indirect land use change in coherence with the modelling principles of LCA. The
consideration of potential effects of land transformation in the context of addressing GHG emissions
may only be treated as qualitative information and be addressed during the interpretation phase.
Indirect effects can lead to important contribution of the life cycle of products; if they are included for
biobased products, they shall at least be considered and included for the products they are compared
with as well.
Possible approaches in the methodology are proposed in the European Commission’s Joint Research
[3]
Centre .
5.4.3 Water inventory
5.4.3.1 General
Water is of vital importance for quality of nature and almost all human activities, including the
production of biomass and therefore the impacts of water use and consumption and on water quality
are of crucial importance.
5.4.3.2 Elementary flows
Data related to water which represent elementary flows may be directly collected from unit processes
or derived from data, which represent material flows, such as ancillary material or waste for further
processing.
The water inventory should include inputs and outputs from each unit process being part of the system
to be studied. Any discrepancies in the inventory balance shall be explained.
Generally, information on each elementary flow should include, where relevant:
a) quantities of water used:
— mass or volume (e.g. water inputs and water outputs);
b) resource types of water used, e.g.:
— surface water;
— seawater;
— brackish water;
— groundwater (excluding fossil water);
— fossil water;
NOTE 1 Tap water or treated water are not elementary water flows but intermediate flows from
a process within the technosphere (e.g. from a water treatment plant).
NOTE 2 Precipitation is not accounted as water input for agriculture and forestry, as it is largely
emitted by evaporation and transplantation by the plant and the ground, and which contributes to the
natural water cycle, or is incorporated into the output product flow of the system.
c) water quality parameters and/or characteristics, e.g.:
— physical (e.g. thermal), chemical, and biological characteristics, or functional water quality
descriptors;
d) forms of water use, e.g.:
— evaporation;
— product integration;
— release into different drainage basins or the sea;
— displacement of water from one water resource type to another water resource type within a
drainage basin (e.g. from groundwater to surface water);
— other forms of water used or affected (in-stream use);
e) geographical location of water used or affected (including withdrawal and/or release);
— information on the physical location of water used or affected, including withdrawal and release
(as site-specific as needed) or assignment of the physical locations to a category derived from
an appropriate classification of drainage basins or regions;
NOTE 3 Environmental condition indicator (e.g. water scarcity, local level of social development,
etc.) will require information on the location where the water use takes place.
f) temporal aspects of water use, e.g.:
— time of use and release if relevant residence time occurs within the system boundaries;
g) emissions to air, water and soil with impact on water quality.
NOTE 4 There will be other emissions to air and soil in the product system that do not impact water quality.
Water inputs or water outputs of different resource types, different quality, different form, different
location with different environmental condition indicators, or different timing should not be aggregated
in the inventory phase. This requirement does not apply when the use of generic databases is permitted.
Aggregation may be performed at the impact assessment phase.
Where input and output data for each unit process for the biomass acquisition phase are not available,
water used for irrigation, water used for spraying (e.g. fertilisers, pesticides), and water used for the
production of those inputs should mentioned in regard to data adequacy and what will be done towards
improving the situation and documented in the study.
5.5 Inventory of fossil and biogenic carbon flows
GHG emissions and removals arising from fossil carbon sources and biogenic carbon sources and sinks
shall be included and listed separately in the inventory.
NOTE Further guidance can be found in Annex B.
5.6 Guidance for modelling agro-, forestry and aquaculture systems
5.6.1 Modelling agricultural systems
5.6.1.1 General
Agriculture can have positive and negative impacts on the environment. Agricultural crops, such as
corn, sugar cane, cassava, palm and castor, can be used as raw materials in biobased products. It is
commonly recognized that the following activities/actions related to agriculture, have environmental
impacts e.g.:
— use of fertilizers;
— irrigation;
— land occupation and transformation;
— soil management; and
— activities for the production of agricultural inputs such as mineral fertilizers and fuels.
It is noted that agricultural field work is complex, and practices vary significantly across farms
and regions. Many parameters influence LCA impacts of agriculture, including intensification and
optimization of production practices.
At the same time (resource-, energy-, emission-) efficiency and thus the resulting environmental
interventions mirrored in LCA of agricultural production, vary significantly amongst the:
a) type of crop cultivated
b) management regime (fertilizer, p
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