ISO/IEC/IEEE 24748-9:2023

Systems and software engineering — Life cycle management — Part 9: Application of system and software life cycle processes in epidemic prevention and control systems

This document provides requirements and guidance on the application of system and software engineering processes to systems for epidemic prevention and control. This document provides guidance that can be employed for adopting and applying system and software life cycle processes within an organization or a project in an epidemic emergency. It includes system of systems considerations in the context of epidemic emergency. This document applies to acquisition, supply, development, operation, maintenance, and disposal (whether performed internally or externally to an organization) of system or system of systems in an epidemic emergency. Many of the requirements and recommendations in this document are also applicable to other systems developed rapidly to respond to emergency conditions affecting the public.

Ingénierie des systèmes et du logiciel — Gestion du cycle de vie — Partie 9: Application des processus du cycle de vie des systèmes et du logiciel dans les systèmes de prévention et de lutte contre les épidémies

General Information

• Status: Published
• Publication Date: 30-May-2023
• ICS: 35.080 - Software
• Technical Committee: ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 - Software and systems engineering
• Drafting Committee: ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 - Software and systems engineering
• Current Stage: 6060 - International Standard published
• Start Date: 31-May-2023
• Due Date: 25-Jun-2024
• Completion Date: 31-May-2023

Standards Content (Sample)

INTERNATIONAL ISO/
STANDARD IEC/IEEE
24748-9
First edition
2023-05
Systems and software engineering —
Life cycle management —
Part 9:
Application of system and software
life cycle processes in epidemic
prevention and control systems
Ingénierie des systèmes et du logiciel — Gestion du cycle de vie —
Partie 9: Application des processus du cycle de vie des systèmes et
du logiciel dans les systèmes de prévention et de lutte contre les
épidémies
Reference number
© ISO/IEC 2023
© IEEE 2023
© ISO/IEC 2023
© IEEE 2023
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Published in Switzerland
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Contents Page
Foreword .v
Introduction . vi
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms, definitions, and abbreviated terms . 1
3.1 Terms and definitions . 1
3.2 Abbreviated terms . 2
4 Conformance . 3
4.1 Intended usage . 3
4.2 Full conformance . 3
4.2.1 Full conformance to outcomes . 3
4.2.2 Full conformance to tasks . 3
4.3 Tailored conformance . 3
5 Key concepts and application . 3
5.1 General . 3
5.2 System concepts . 4
5.2.1 System . 4
5.2.2 Characteristics of systems for epidemic emergency . 4
5.2.3 System structure . 6
5.2.4 Interfacing, enabling, and interoperating systems . 7
5.2.5 Concepts related to the system solution context. 7
5.2.6 Product line engineering (PLE). 7
5.3 Organization and project concepts . 7
5.3.1 Organizations . 7
5.3.2 Organization and project-level adoption . 7
5.3.3 Organization and collaborative activities . . 7
5.4 Life cycle concepts . 7
5.4.1 System life cycle model . 7
5.4.2 System life cycle stages . 7
5.5 Process concepts . 9
5.5.1 Criteria for processes . 9
5.5.2 Description of processes . 9
5.5.3 General characteristics of processes . 9
5.5.4 Characteristics of life cycle processes for epidemic emergency systems. 9
5.6 Processes in this document . 10
5.6.1 General . 10
5.6.2 Agreement processes . 10
5.6.3 Organizational project-enabling processes . 10
5.6.4 Technical management processes. 10
5.6.5 Technical processes . 10
5.7 System-of-interest concepts . 10
5.7.1 General . 10
5.7.2 Relationships between software and system . 10
5.8 System of systems concepts . 11
5.8.1 General . 11
5.8.2 Differences between systems and SoS . 11
5.8.3 Managerial and operational independence . 11
5.8.4 Taxonomy of SoS . 11
5.8.5 SoS considerations in life cycle stages of a system . 11
5.8.6 Epidemic prevention and control system as an SoS . 11
5.9 Process application .12
5.9.1 Overview . 12
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5.9.2 Process iteration, recursion, and concurrency .13
5.9.3 Process views . 13
5.10 Concept and system definition . 13
5.11 Assurance and quality characteristics. 13
5.12 Process reference model .13
6 System life cycle processes .14
6.1 Agreement processes . 14
6.1.1 Acquisition process . 14
6.1.2 Supply process . 14
6.2 Organizational project-enabling processes . 15
6.2.1 Life cycle model management process . 15
6.2.2 Infrastructure management process . 15
6.2.3 Portfolio management process . 16
6.2.4 Human resource management process . 17
6.2.5 Quality management process . 17
6.2.6 Knowledge management process . 18
6.3 Technical management processes . 18
6.3.1 Project planning process . . 18
6.3.2 Project assessment and control process . 19
6.3.3 Decision management process. 19
6.3.4 Risk management process . 20
6.3.5 Configuration management process . 21
6.3.6 Information management process . 21
6.3.7 Measurement process .22
6.3.8 Quality assurance process . 22
6.4 Technical processes . .23
6.4.1 Business or mission analysis process . 23
6.4.2 Stakeholder needs and requirements definition process . 24
6.4.3 System requirements definition process. 25
6.4.4 Architecture definition process. 26
6.4.5 Design definition process . 27
6.4.6 System analysis process .28
6.4.7 Implementation process .28
6.4.8 Integration process .29
6.4.9 Verification process .30
6.4.10 Transition process . 31
6.4.11 Validation process . 32
6.4.12 Operation process . 32
6.4.13 Maintenance process . 33
6.4.14 Disposal process .34
Annex A (informative) Issues and concerns of stakeholders in the application of lifecycle
processes to epidemic prevention and control systems .35
Bibliography .41
IEEE notices and abstract .42
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Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (the International Electrotechnical
Commission) form the specialized system for worldwide standardization. National bodies that are
members of ISO or IEC participate in the development of International Standards through technical
committees established by the respective organization to deal with particular fields of technical
activity. ISO and IEC technical committees collaborate in fields of mutual interest. Other international
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO and IEC, also take part in the
work.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed
for the different types of ISO/IEC documents should be noted. This document was drafted in
accordance with the editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives or
www.iec.ch/members_experts/refdocs).
IEEE Standards documents are developed within the IEEE Societies and the Standards Coordinating
Committees of the IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) Standards Board. The IEEE develops its
standards through a consensus development process, approved by the American National Standards
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While the IEEE administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the consensus
development process, the IEEE does not independently evaluate, test, or verify the accuracy of any of
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Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject
of patent rights. ISO and IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent
rights. Details of any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the
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list of patent declarations received (see https://patents.iec.ch).
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For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to
the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see
www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html. In the IEC, see www.iec.ch/understanding-standards.
ISO/IEC/IEEE 24748-9 was prepared by Joint Technical Committee ISO/IEC JTC 1, Information
technology, Subcommittee SC 7, Software and systems engineering, in cooperation with the Systems and
Software Engineering Standards Committee of the IEEE Computer Society, under the Partner Standards
Development Organization cooperation agreement between ISO and IEEE.
A list of all parts in the ISO/IEC/IEEE 24748 series can be found on the ISO and IEC website.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards
body. A complete listing of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html and
www.iec.ch/national-committees.
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Introduction
Many areas have adopted information-based prevention and control measures during an epidemic
and have developed numerous epidemic prevention and control systems and software. Most of
the processes in the entire life cycle of the epidemic prevention and control systems are likely to be
completed in the event of an epidemic. Compared with the normal state, there can be special situations
such as poor communication, caused by the need for personnel to maintain a safe distance, and limited
transportation and logistics services. The result can be insufficient infrastructure protection, short
delivery cycles, frequent iterative upgrades, and special requirements such as accuracy, disaster
tolerance, degradation capability, safety, user capacity and stress testing, and rapid demand capture.
In the development process of epidemic prevention and control systems, the application of the life cycle
processes specified in ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 and ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207 can effectively help guide the
process management and application of epidemic prevention and control systems.
However, for effective and efficient application of system and software life cycle processes on epidemic
prevention and control systems, additional application requirements are needed. Requirements specific
to the use of the epidemic prevention and control systems that facilitate effective implementation
depend on the nature and severity of the epidemic and are not detailed in this document.
This document is consistent with life cycle processes of ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207
for application on epidemic prevention and control systems, to help ensure the correct application of
stakeholders’ requirements for epidemic prevention and control systems. This document includes the
required outputs and associated attributes.
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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO/IEC/IEEE 24748-9:2023(E)
Systems and software engineering — Life cycle
management —
Part 9:
Application of system and software life cycle processes in
epidemic prevention and control systems
1 Scope
This document provides requirements and guidance on the application of system and software
engineering processes to systems for epidemic prevention and control.
This document provides guidance that can be employed for adopting and applying system and software
life cycle processes within an organization or a project in an epidemic emergency. It includes system of
systems considerations in the context of epidemic emergency.
This document applies to acquisition, supply, development, operation, maintenance, and disposal
(whether performed internally or externally to an organization) of system or system of systems in an
epidemic emergency.
Many of the requirements and recommendations in this document are also applicable to other systems
developed rapidly to respond to emergency conditions affecting the public.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, Systems and software engineering — Software life cycle processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, Systems and software engineering — System life cycle processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15289, Systems and software engineering — Content of life-cycle information items
(documentation)
3 Terms, definitions, and abbreviated terms
3.1 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
ISO, IEC, and IEEE maintain terminology databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https:// www .electropedia .org/
— IEEE Standards Dictionary Online: available at: https:// dictionary .ieee .org
NOTE For additional terms and definitions in the field of systems and software engineering, see
ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765, which is published periodically as a “snapshot” of the SEVOCAB (Systems and software
Engineering Vocabulary) database, and which is publicly accessible at www .computer .org/ sevocab.
© ISO/IEC 2023 – All rights reserved
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3.1.1
constituent system
CS
independent system (3.1.3) that forms part of a system of systems (SoS) (3.1.5)
Note 1 to entry: Constituent systems can be part of one or more SoS. Each constituent system is a useful system
by itself, having its own development, management, utilization, goals, and resources, but interacts within the SoS
to provide the unique capability of the SoS.
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 21839:2019, 3.1.1, modified — The abbreviated term "CS" has been added.]
3.1.2
emergency
serious, unexpected, and often dangerous situation requiring immediate action
3.1.3
system
arrangement of parts or elements that together exhibit a stated behaviour or meaning that the
individual constituents do not
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 3.47]
3.1.4
system-of-interest
SoI
system (3.1.3) whose life cycle is under consideration
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 3.49]
3.1.5
system of systems
SoS
set of systems (3.1.3) and system elements that interact to provide a unique capability that none of the
constituent systems (3.1.1) can accomplish on its own
Note 1 to entry: System elements can be necessary to facilitate interaction of the constituent systems in the
system of systems.
[SOURCE: ISO/IEC/IEEE 21839:2019, 3.1.4]
3.2 Abbreviated terms
API application program interface
CWBS contract work breakdown structure
DT&E developmental test and evaluation
ESOH environment, safety, and occupational health
EVM earned value management
FMECA failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis
IMP integrated main plan
IMS integrated main schedule
IVS intelligent vision systems
OpsCon operational concept
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PSA product support analysis
QA quality assurance
QPS queries per second
RT response time
SEMP systems engineering management plan
SEP systems engineering plan
SIP system integration plan
TPS transactions per second
4 Conformance
4.1 Intended usage
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 4.1 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 4.1 shall apply.
4.2 Full conformance
4.2.1 Full conformance to outcomes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 4.2.1 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 4.2.1 shall apply with additional
outcomes specified in Clause 6.
4.2.2 Full conformance to tasks
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 4.2.2 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 4.2.2 shall apply with additional tasks
specified in Clause 6.
4.3 Tailored conformance
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 4.3 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 4.3 shall apply.
In the case of an epidemic, due to the rapid and serious development of the epidemic, the epidemic
prevention and control system project should adopt a tailoring process.
5 Key concepts and application
5.1 General
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.1 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.1 shall apply with the following addition:
For epidemic prevention and control systems, more attention should be paid to the system and process
characteristics in the context of an epidemic.
If the epidemic prevention and control system has many constituent systems (CS) and is complex
enough to be regarded as a system of systems (SoS) or more than one SoS, then SoS considerations
described in ISO/IEC/IEEE 21840 should be taken into account for system life cycle processes.
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5.2 System concepts
5.2.1 System
This document refers specifically to systems that are developed, adapted, or deployed during epidemic
emergencies, such as pandemics. The systems considered in this document are epidemic prevention and
control physical systems, created and utilized to provide products or services in epidemic environments
for the prevention and control of epidemics. Annex A includes examples of typical epidemic prevention
and control systems. These systems can include the following system elements: hardware, software,
data, humans, processes (e.g. processes for providing service to users), procedures (e.g. operator
instructions), facilities, services, materials and naturally occurring entities. As viewed by the user,
they are thought of as products or services. The systems can be considered as SoS. Clause 6 explains
the specific tasks in processes, covering their development, augmentation, implementation, and other
stages.
5.2.2 Characteristics of systems for epidemic emergency
5.2.2.1 Joint missions
To bring additional resources to system development, to meet the needs of multiple stakeholders,
and to improve interoperability and information sharing, multiple organizations often engage in
joint missions during an epidemic emergency. Joint missions can perform system conceptualization,
development, implementation, and operation. The goal of joint missions is to share knowledge on
epidemic response and preparedness measures implemented in infected regions or countries and to
generate recommendations for adjusting epidemic containment and response measures. The system
architecture and requirements for components such as database, data sharing, information exchange,
system docking using API for external calls, and programming languages should be considered in this
context.
EXAMPLE The systems can allow multiple hospitals to share their patient condition status and remaining
acceptable capabilities for patients' infectious disease data, used to determine hospital vehicles and patients
requiring appropriate care.
5.2.2.2 Infrastructure protection
Infrastructure and facilities are the essential basis for system operation, especially in the context of
an epidemic emergency. However, due to the need for epidemic containment, people can suffer social
activity limitations and constraints. Thus, transportation and logistics of the supply chain do not work
normally, which results in insufficient facilities supply and inadequate infrastructure protection. In this
case, the availability and reliable performance related to the epidemic prevention and control system
can be greatly affected. An emergency mechanism and solution should be clarified and established.
5.2.2.3 Strengthened data analysis and visualization functions
Systems and methods for visualization of data analysis are valuable to support rapid decision-making
based on evidence. In data analysis, generation of descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis, and
confirmatory data analysis methods are utilized. A method comprises accessing a database, analysing
the database to identify clusters of data, and generating an interactive visualization, which is used for
better risk assessment and decision-making.
In the context of an epidemic emergency, the data analysis of the epidemic prevention and control
system and visualization methods should be strengthened, to better present the comprehensive and
different dimensions of the epidemic, support epidemic prevention, and control decision-making.
NOTE The D7-R4 method can be applied in case of IVS related processes. D7-R4 stands for a software
development life cycle model with seven stages (i.e. discover, dig, describe, design, develop, demonstrate, and
deploy) and reviews from four different perspectives (i.e. quality, user/agent experience, ethics, and security).
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5.2.2.4 Adequate performance efficiency consideration
For an epidemic prevention and control system, performance efficiency requirements should be
considered. Some scenarios can require real-time response. For example, consistent with data privacy
regulations, health QR code applications can be used to start an application; biometric recognition
such as facial recognition can be used for user authentication for the doctors; infrared temperature
measurement can be used for the clients. For load-balancing in an epidemic emergency, a capacity
planning process is developed, in which the full-scale stress test is key to ensuring smooth operations.
The process stage includes pre-system machine capacity estimation, full-scale stress testing, and traffic
control. During the tests, consideration of the parameters should be taken, for instance, TPS, QPS, RT
and the number of concurrent users.
NOTE Performance efficiency can be identified as a quality characteristic, including time efficiency and
resource efficiency, which are prescribed in ISO/IEC 25010.
5.2.2.5 System resilience capabilities
The system should be capable of working in an unstable environment during an epidemic emergency. In
this case, a system resilience plan should be considered in the concept stage. The system should achieve
the following capabilities for system resilience.
— In case that internet is not available, the communication should work through other available
systems or even through manual ways.
— Key information should be displayed as a priority during poor internet connection.
— Data should be transmitted by other protocols, e.g. Bluetooth.
5.2.2.6 Disaster recovery capacity
Along with a disaster recovery system, preventive measures should be implemented to avoid crisis
situations that have the potential to cause irreparable damage and close down operations indefinitely.
Disaster recovery is normally achieved through procedures that backup and restore data, systems, and
applications from different locations.
During an epidemic emergency, the systems should be able to function in a decentralized manner,
without one central owner. Instead, they use multiple central owners, each of which usually stores a
copy of the resources which users can access. For instance, a local health QR code is capable of accessing
service by decentralized systems.
5.2.2.7 Balancing trade-offs between privacy protection or security and information
transparency
Epidemics have created opportunities for greater transparency through the proactive release of
information which can help the containment of disease. However, release of information is contradictory
to and imposes risk to the public's data privacy and security.
For protecting data privacy, back deduction by algorithm to personal identification and encryption
keys is not allowed. In practice, the real-time infected data should not be provided to the general public.
Data security refers to the process of protecting data from unauthorized access and data corruption
throughout the system life cycle. Data security includes data encryption, hashing, tokenization, and
key management practices that protect data across all applications and platforms. During an epidemic
emergency, sensitive information, for instance personal information, motion trajectory, or close contact,
should be handled properly with a firewall security module and multi-level permissions for developers.
5.2.2.8 Data correctness
In an emergency there can be a trade-off between timeliness of data collection and correctness
(accuracy) of data. For example, infected persons may be requested to give data about private activities
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during the past several days, including health status parameters, living place, and visited locations.
Correct personal detailed data is useful to find the possible route of infection spread. In some cases,
it possibly accelerates emergent prevention actions during an infection, increasing the probability of
identifying infected people including pseudo infection. However, over time more correct information
should be obtained or verified, enabling users to distinguish between actual infections, non-
symptomatic carriers, and increases in severity of cases.
Eventually, the verification of individual infection is based on medical evidence. When the infection
data is transmitted, the coverage range and correctness should be predicted. Consideration should also
be given to the accuracy and interpretation of predicted data from machine learning systems.
Compared with the value of real-time information transmission, the accuracy of information is more
important.
NOTE Data correctness is related to data quality characteristics which are prescribed in ISO/IEC 25012.
5.2.2.9 Reduced misalignment of incentives
Misaligned incentives refer to situations where the conflicting incentives of the stakeholder, developer
or practitioner involved in life cycle processes hamper achievement of a common intended goal of a
system. Putting specific interests ahead of common system interests can turn planned cooperation into
opposition and produce poor outcomes, including the failure of epidemic prevention and control. Two of
the most common types of misaligned incentives are those in which either a system element’s interests
are traded off against the system’s interests, or long-term interests are traded off against short-term
interests.
5.2.3 System structure
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.2.2 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.2.2 shall apply with the following
addition:
The epidemic prevention and control physical system is a complex SoI or SoS, a system element of which
can itself be considered as a system, which can comprise the natural system, the governance system,
the health system, the logistic system, and the human ecosystem, respectively. Figure 1 illustrates the
structure of an epidemic decision system information model, which can be either an SoI or an SoS.
Figure 1 — Structure of epidemic decision system information model
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5.2.4 Interfacing, enabling, and interoperating systems
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.2.3 shall apply.
5.2.5 Concepts related to the system solution context
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.2.4 shall apply.
5.2.6 Product line engineering (PLE)
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.2.5 shall apply.
5.3 Organization and project concepts
5.3.1 Organizations
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.3.1 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.3.1 shall apply.
5.3.2 Organization and project-level adoption
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.3.2 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.3.2 shall apply.
5.3.3 Organization and collaborative activities
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.3.3 shall apply.
5.4 Life cycle concepts
5.4.1 System life cycle model
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.5.1 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.4.2 shall apply.
5.4.2 System life cycle stages
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.5.2 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.4.1 shall apply. Figure 2 illustrates the
interrelationship of the life cycle processes described in this document.
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Figure 2 — Interrelationship among processes and system characteristics during an epidemic
emergency
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5.5 Process concepts
5.5.1 Criteria for processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.6.1 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.5.1 shall apply.
5.5.2 Description of processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.6.2 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.5.2 shall apply with the following
addition:
For the application of the epidemic prevention and control systems, each process includes software
engineering outputs with attributes. The output shall meet the requirements of ISO/IEC/IEEE 15289.
5.5.3 General characteristics of processes
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2023, 5.6.3 or ISO/IEC/IEEE 12207:2017, 5.5.3 shall apply.
5.5.4 Characteristics of life cycle processes for epidemic emergency systems
5.5.4.1 Active knowledge management
System development is a knowledge-intensive activity and its success depends heavily on the developers'
knowledge and experience. Especially during an epidemic emergency, inter-disciplinary knowledge is
valuable, including system and software, health and medical care, and emergency management.
5.5.4.2 Rapid requirements capture and development cycles
Epidemic changes are usually unpredictable and relatively rapid, which leads to corresponding changes
and adjustments in the requirements and definitions of epidemic prevention and control systems.
Therefore, rapidly changing requirements are repeatedly captured and modified; and short development
cycles are utilized. System development teams attempt to deliver new and modified capabilities in a
short timeframe. The short development cycle should follow the guidelines in this document to avoid
or minimize system defects and gaps. This kind of situation is challenging for a supplier or system
development teams who want to keep up with a fast-paced, ever-changing epidemic emergency.
5.5.4.3 Accelerated system/software development speed
This document aims to deliver guidance for fast system/software construction in quick response to an
epidemic emergency. System development should be accelerated to achieve fast and responsive results.
Optimization of the processes can use advanced methodologies such as agile development. It supports
fast, iterative system/software development that allows developers to fine-tune features in response to
feedback.
The new features require careful design, tested development, and thorough testing. The importance
of meeting the deadline compromises each process and can result in an extremely fragile application.
Thus, the centralized leadership team has to find strategies to maintain the balance between speed and
quality. Those strategies can include in-process control and in-use improvement.
5.5.4.4 Rapid iteration
Iterative development is a way of breaking down the system development of a large application into
smaller
...