ISO/TR 21960:2020
(Main)Plastics — Environmental aspects — State of knowledge and methodologies
Plastics — Environmental aspects — State of knowledge and methodologies
This document summarizes current scientific literature on the occurrence of macroplastics and microplastics, in the environment and biota. It gives an overview of testing methods, including sampling from various environmental matrix, sample preparation and analysis. Further, chemical and physical testing methods for the identification and quantification of plastics are described. This document gives recommendations for three steps necessary for the standardization of methods towards harmonized procedures for sampling, sample preparation and analysis. This document does not apply indoor and health related aspects. NOTE The collection of plastics or microplastics in the environment by citizen social monitoring projects is not in the scope of this document. Although such projects can help sensitize the society to environmental problems and can even reduce the entry and presence of plastics in the environment, this monitoring concept is not considered suitable for a robustly representative and scientific analysis of microplastics in the environment via standardization.
Plastiques — Aspects liés à l'environnement — État des connaissances et méthodologies
General Information
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Standards Content (Sample)
TECHNICAL ISO/TR
REPORT 21960
First edition
2020-02
Plastics — Environmental aspects —
State of knowledge and methodologies
Reference number
©
ISO 2020
© ISO 2020
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ii © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 End-use applications of plastic materials and its relevance to the environment .4
4.1 General . 4
4.2 Packaging . 8
4.3 Building and construction . 9
4.4 Mobility and transportation, electrical and electronics . 9
4.5 Agriculture . 9
5 Occurrence of plastics in environmental matrix and biota .10
5.1 General .10
5.2 Water systems .10
5.2.1 Marine waters .10
5.2.2 Fresh waters .11
5.3 Sediments .11
5.3.1 Marine sediments . . .11
5.3.2 Fresh water sediments .12
5.4 Sludge .12
5.5 Soils .13
5.5.1 Terrestrial systems.13
5.5.2 Beaches .13
5.6 Air .14
5.7 Terrestrial fresh water and marine biota .14
6 Testing methods .15
6.1 General .15
6.2 Sampling .15
6.2.1 General.15
6.2.2 Water (aquatic systems) .16
6.2.3 Sediment, sludge and soil (solid systems) .17
6.2.4 Air .18
6.2.5 Biota .18
6.2.6 Statistical considerations for sampling .19
6.3 Sample preparation .19
6.3.1 General.19
6.3.2 Physical preparation methods .20
6.3.3 Chemical preparation methods .21
6.3.4 Enzymatic preparation .21
6.4 Analysis.21
6.4.1 General.21
6.4.2 Spectroscopic analysis methods .22
6.4.3 Thermo-analytic methods .23
6.4.4 Chemical extraction methods .23
7 Methodology of entry pathways (Monitoring) .25
8 Basics of environmental assessments .27
9 Recommendations for the development of standards .28
Bibliography .30
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www .iso .org/ directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www .iso .org/ patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see www .iso .org/
iso/ foreword .html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 61, Plastics, Subcommittee SC 14,
Environmental aspects, in collaboration with the European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
Technical Committee CEN/TC 249, Plastics, in accordance with the Agreement on technical cooperation
between ISO and CEN (Vienna Agreement).
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www .iso .org/ members .html.
iv © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
Introduction
Plastics materials are highly flexible and universally applicable. They can be found in a diversity of
product areas and application sectors. In order to achieve a sustainable management and exploitation
of products, safe and efficient manufacturing processes are compulsory within the value chain. In
addition, an environmentally friendly use and handling across diverse applications is necessary during
consumption, reuse and disposal. This ensures that an effective and qualified management at the
product’s end-of-life is addressed through proper performed procedures and evaluations.
If mismanagement happens at any of the above described life cycle stages, the use of plastics and
plastics-containing products can create adverse effects to the environment. It has been proven, not
least by the United Nations Environment Programme, that discarded products as well as microplastics
are found in the environment around the globe, be it on land or water bodies including the sea. There
are diverse causes for this such as inappropriate or inefficient waste management infrastructures,
improper management of plastics products and their waste reuse or disposal, inefficient wastewater
management, etc. Therefore, various types of entries into the environment and diverse constitutions
and compositions of the microplastic particles in the environment are to be considered. Littered
articles as well as microplastics consists of different kinds of products and come from different waste,
e.g. bottles, films, fishing nets, tyres, cosmetics, clothing fibres, etc.
Over extended time in the environment, plastics products and their waste will breakdown into smaller
items and finally disintegrate to microparticles. Microplastics also enter the environment directly
through its intentional use in some product applications. Microparticles, be it via primary product use
or via secondary fragmentation of macro articles, should be considered with special care since they can
give rise to adverse environmental impact especially in the aquatic environment and its biota.
This document with its primary focus on plastics, rather than all the other materials, in the environment
intends to provide a survey on the international situation of plastics and plastics in the environment
with special attention to microplastics in the marine environment, its detection and determination.
For this purpose, the document describes the state-of-the art testing methods as well as assessment
approaches.
Although this document gives a representative overview of the current knowledge (up to early 2017)
and activities about plastics and microplastics around the world, information is predominately
generated from the Northern Hemisphere and activities in Europe and North America.
In this way, the document can be recognized as a contribution towards harmonized procedures and
measures in order to provide a sound basis for a reliable and verifiable evaluation of the impact of
plastics and microplastic in the environment. The document covers the following key items of interest.
— Status of plastics products and plastics in the environment: Facts about plastics use and proven
findings about the occurrence of plastics and microplastics in the environmental matrix, be it on
land and water bodies including the sea.
— Terminology: The terms “plastic particles”, “plastic microparticles”, “microplastics”, “plastic
nanoparticles” or “solid microparticle” are currently not defined in a consistent way and are,
especially in an international context, being used differently. This document makes an attempt
towards a globally harmonized terminology.
— Test methods: Methods for the detection, analysis and assessment of plastic particles present in the
environment, such as aquatic litter, are neither harmonized nor standardized. Simple visual tests, in
particular, have proved to be insufficient. This document will describe the sampling, its preparation
of samples and further analytics, especially in waters as the main task of this document, since
reproducible and verifiable procedures are indispensable to derive valid data for the environmental
assessment and on this basis concluding appropriate measures to improve the environmental
situation.
Not only has the plastics economy recognized the importance of this topic and started diverse action
programmes, which are, for example, compiled through the Global Plastics Declaration Initiative,
also political groups (e.g. G 7 and G 20), international organisations such as OECD, administrations of
regions and individual countries are increasingly taking care about the serious issue of littered plastic
waste and microparticles in the environment. In addition, numerous research activities have also been
initiated. All these key stakeholders will highly benefit from a globally harmonized procedure.
This document includes references to studies and investigations in relation with plastics in the
environmental matrix and biota, including microplastics. Important is the chapter terms and
definitions. It presents the basis for future work in ISO. The description of the size classes is particularly
relevant. Reference is made to other classifications of other organizations, for example in the area
of Nanoparticles (see also OECD). The references selected within this document reflect the current
knowledge without claiming to be complete or fully up-to-date. The content and conclusions of the
different studies referenced in the bibliography are under the responsibility of their authors.
NOTE The document was developed under the scope of ISO/TC 61 Plastics and follows resulting requirements.
Independent from these, terms are used in the text, which are in the scope of other ISO/TCs, such as:
— ISO/TC 38, Textiles;
— ISO/TC 45, Rubber and rubber products;
— ISO/TC 217, Cosmetics
vi © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
TECHNICAL REPORT ISO/TR 21960:2020(E)
Plastics — Environmental aspects — State of knowledge
and methodologies
1 Scope
This document summarizes current scientific literature on the occurrence of macroplastics and
microplastics, in the environment and biota. It gives an overview of testing methods, including sampling
from various environmental matrix, sample preparation and analysis. Further, chemical and physical
testing methods for the identification and quantification of plastics are described.
This document gives recommendations for three steps necessary for the standardization of methods
towards harmonized procedures for sampling, sample preparation and analysis.
This document does not apply indoor and health related aspects.
NOTE The collection of plastics or microplastics in the environment by citizen social monitoring projects
is not in the scope of this document. Although such projects can help sensitize the society to environmental
problems and can even reduce the entry and presence of plastics in the environment, this monitoring concept is
not considered suitable for a robustly representative and scientific analysis of microplastics in the environment
via standardization.
2 Normative references
There are no normative references in this document.
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. ISO and IEC maintain
terminological databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at http:// www .electropedia .org/
3.1
polymer
chemical compound or mixture of compounds consisting of repeating structural units created through
polymerization
Note 1 to entry: In practice above 10 000 Dalton.
Note 2 to entry: Polymers comprise both plastics and elastomers. The latter is excluded from the scope of
ISO/TC 61.
3.2
plastic
material which contains as an essential ingredient a high polymer (3.1) and which, at some stage in its
processing into finished products, can be shaped by flow
Note 1 to entry: Plastics consists mainly polymers and minor contents of additives (3.7).
Note 2 to entry: Supplementary to the term “plastic”, “plastic product” is also used. According to ISO 472, a plastic
product represents “any material or combination of materials, semi-finished or finished product that is within
the scope of ISO/TC 61, Plastics”.
Note 3 to entry: Plastics comprise both thermoplastic (3.3) and thermoset (3.4) materials.
[SOURCE: ISO 472:2013, 2.702, modified — Notes to entry have been replaced.]
3.3
thermoplastic
plastic (3.1) that has thermoplastic properties
[SOURCE: ISO 472:2013, 2.1178]
3.4
thermoset
plastic (3.1) which, when cured by heat or other means, changes into a substantially infusible and
insoluble product
[SOURCE: ISO 472:2013, 2.1181]
3.5
elastomer
macromolecular material which returns rapidly to its initial dimensions and shape after substantial
deformation by a weak stress and release of the stress
Note 1 to entry: The definition applies under room temperature test conditions.
[SOURCE: ISO 472:2013, 2.327]
3.6
composite
solid product consisting of two or more layers (often in a symmetrical assembly) of, for instance, plastic
film or sheet, normal or syntactic cellular plastic, metal, wood or a composite with or without adhesive
interlayers
[SOURCE: ISO 472:2013, 2.182.2, modified — The example has been omitted.]
3.7
additives
chemicals added to polymers (3.1) to improve/change the individual properties of the specific plastic
material
Note 1 to entry: Important additives such as fillers/reinforced materials, softeners and flame retardants are
referenced according to ISO 1043-2 to ISO 1043-4.
3.8
macroplastic
any solid plastic particle or object insoluble in water with any dimension above 5 mm
Note 1 to entry: Typically, a macroplastic object represents an article consisting of plastic or a part of an end-user
product or a fragment of the respective article, such as cups, cup covers.
Note 2 to entry: The defined dimension is related to the longest distance of the particle.
3.9
microplastic
any solid plastic particle insoluble in water with any dimension between 1 µm and 1 000 µm (=1 mm)
Note 1 to entry: This term relates to plastic materials within the scope of ISO/TC 61. Rubber, fibres, cosmetic
means, etc. are not within the scope.
Note 2 to entry: Typically, a microplastic object represents a particle intentionally added to end-user products,
such as cosmetic means, coatings, paints, etc. A microplastic object can also result as a fragment of the respective
article.
Note 3 to entry: Microplastics may show various shapes.
Note 4 to entry: The defined dimension is related to the longest distance of the particle.
2 © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
3.10
large microplastic
any solid plastic particle insoluble in water with any dimension between 1 mm and 5 mm
Note 1 to entry: Microplastics (3.9) may show various shapes.
Note 2 to entry: Typically, a large microplastic object represents an article consisting of plastic or a part of an
end-user product or a fragment of the respective article.
Note 3 to entry: Microplastics in this size range are, for example, plastic pellets as intermediates for further
down-stream processing such as moulding, extrusion, etc. resulting to semi-finished products which are not
final end-user products.
3.11
microparticle
solid particle insoluble in water in the dimension between 1 µm and 1 000 µm (=1 mm)
Note 1 to entry: There is currently no specific distinction between nanoparticles and microparticles.
3.12
macroparticle
solid particle not soluble in water in the dimension above 5 mm
3.13
nanoplastic
plastic particles smaller than 1 µm
Note 1 to entry: According to OECD nanoparticles are up to 100 nm.
3.14
litter
solid object disposed of or abandoned in the environment (3.17)
3.15
marine litter
litter (3.14) found in the marine or coastal environment (3.17)
3.16
waste
any material or object which the holder discards, or intends to discard, or is required to discard
[SOURCE: ISO 15270, 3.34]
3.17
environment
conditions and surroundings that might influence the behaviour of an item or biotic life
Note 1 to entry: Environmental matrices are: water, air and soil.
Note 2 to entry: The relation to the environment within this document does not refer to environmental aspects
such as resource efficiency, energy consumption, climate protection, etc. rather this document focuses on the
relevance with respect to potential releases into the environment on land or sea.
[SOURCE: ISO 472:2013, 2.1310, modified — The definition has been edited to specify biotic life and
Notes to entry have been added.]
3.18
ageing
entirety of all irreversible chemical and physical processes occurring in a material in the course of time
Note 1 to entry: For testing purposes, ageing is often applied artificially.
3.19
biota
living organisms in the environment (3.17)
4 End-use applications of plastic materials and its relevance to the environment
4.1 General
Plastics are important materials in today’s modern life and play an integral role in both households
and industries. Over recent years, the consumption of plastic materials has significantly increased
and today they find diverse fields of areas of application such as packaging, building and construction,
automotive, electrical and electronic equipment, etc. Depending on the performance requirements of
the final end application, an article can contain plastics and/or composites.
The production of plastic materials is strictly regulated by legislative rules that translate into permit
requirements for materials production by the chemical and plastics industry according to the Industry
Emission Directive in Europe. In this way, emissions into air, water and soil can be well managed by
applying the best available technologies for polymer production according to legislative rules and
technical guidance.
The plastics value chain can be described as follows. Plastic materials are mostly manufactured from
fossil raw materials like oil or gas and are mainly produced in the form of powders, flakes and pellets
(a preformed moulding material). This material may further be compounded before its use in moulding
and extrusion processes for its subsequent conversion into intermediate semi-finished products like
sheets, profiles, films, etc. These will be shaped into a variety of final articles in the household, buildings,
mobility sectors, etc. For the market relevant plastic materials used by the diverse application sectors,
see 4.2 to 4.5, the term "plastics" comprises thermoplastic materials and thermosets.
Figure 1 shows how in the industrial value chain the various steps of production, logistics and
distributions as well as entry pathways of plastics are distinguished.
4 © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
Key
Yellow boxes: steps of the value chain
Grey boxes: logistics, distribution, trade, transfer
Green boxes: entry pathways
1 raw material producer
2 compounder/converter
3 OEM
4 supplier/tier
5 logistics on land
6 distribution/trade
7 transfer/shipment
8 logistics on sea
9 drain from municipality
10 river
11 port
12 ocean
13 beach/coast
14 biota
NOTE This figure is based on a graph of International Pellet Watch: www .tuat .ac .jp/ -gaia/ ipw/ en/ what .html
Figure 1 — Schematic illustration of the plastics value chain in the context within the
environment after a graph of international pellet watch
NOTE Figure 1 represents a highly simplified illustration of the industrial value chain, the logistics and
distribution as well as possible entry pathways into the environment. The reality is much more complex, thereby,
with further interim steps, interlinkages, dependences or possible further aspects.
Both legislation as well as standardization, especially quality and environmental management like
ISO 9000 group of standards and ISO 14000 group of standards, are in place and may be in principle
considered as appropriate means to minimize eventual losses for each production step as well as
logistics and distribution.
[2]
According to the European Market and Research Group of the European plastics manufacturers , the
total global production of plastic materials amounted to approx. 280 Mio tons in 2016 without other
plastics i.e. thermosets, elastomers, adhesives, coatings, sealants and fibres. Asia accounts for about
50 % of the world-wide production with China leading with 29 % of global production. European
production is less with 19 % and similar to NAFTA states (Canada, Mexico and the US) who have a share
of 18 %. It is assumed that the strong growth in Asia will also continue over the next years reinforcing
their leading role in worldwide plastics production.
Key
1 NAFTA 18 %
2 Europe (WE +CEE) 19 %
3 CIS 2 %
4 China 29 %
5 Japan 4 %
6 Rest of Asia 17 %
7 Latin America 4 %
8 Middle East, Africa 7 %
[2]
NOTE Graph according to Plastics Europe .
Figure 2 — World Plastics Material Production in 2016 by country/region
Globally, the most important types of plastic materials are standard plastics. More than three
quarters of the global plastics production consist of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride
and polystyrene including expanded polystyrene, see Figure 3. Less than 10 % are considered as
engineering plastics.
6 © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
Key
1 LDPE, LLDPE, 17 %
2 HDPE 15 %
3 PP 23 %
4 PVC 16 %
5 PS, EPS 7 %
6 ABS, ASA, SAN 3 %
7 PA 1 %
8 PC 1 %
9 PET 7 %
10 PUR 6 %
11 other thermopl. 4 %
[2]
NOTE Graph according to Plastics Europe .
Figure 3 — World Plastics Material Production in 2016 by type of polymer
When an article that contains plastic materials is placed on the market, it is used by a variety of end-
users such as the industrial/commercial sector as well as the private and household sector. Finally, after
an article has fulfilled its valuable intended purpose to the end-user, it comes to its end-of-life stage
and, thus, it becomes waste. It is important at this stage that such a discarded product should enter
a well-managed waste collection system, operated by either municipalities or by privately organized
enterprises for the further waste treatment, so that the embedded material or energy resources will be
recovered effectively and efficiently.
However, such effective waste management schemes are not available in all countries of the world
which may result in significant amounts of wasted products, including those made of plastics, being
improperly treated or thoughtlessly discarded into the environment, on land or at sea. Leakage of
plastics into the environment is caused mainly through uncontrolled or improper handling of goods
and waste and it is important that measures are taken to prevent this.
The subsequent Clause 5 gives an overview of reports and studies on the occurrence of plastics and
plastics containing waste in the environment. Nevertheless, no validated data exist until today in order
to accurately report the amount of waste entering the environment. Also, the mechanism on the sources
and sinks are not yet sufficiently analysed and understood. Therefore, internationally standardised
procedures are a prerequisite in order to set-up facts and derive appropriate measures.
Though environmental, product and waste management legislation (including logistics, shipment and
treatment of waste, waste water and sewage), is well-established in several countries, the release
of plastic products and other waste materials into the environment by littering through improper
management is expected to increase in countries with little or no waste and service infrastructure. A
mismanagement of waste is further induced due to insufficient education and information for citizen’s
on used articles at end-of-life stage and their impacts of the littering.
An indicator for well-established and well-working waste management is a country’s waste statistics,
which gives information about recovered vs. landfilled waste, especially organic-rich waste fractions
which also include plastics waste. If a country recovers most of its material through either recycling
or energy-from-waste with little being landfilled, then the established waste infrastructure can be
recognized as working rather well. In contrast, there are other countries with a not satisfying waste
infrastructure where it is observed that waste is predominantly dumped to landfills, which may or may
not be responsibly managed. Also, it is known that unofficial waste disposal and wild dumping exist and
here, often leakage into the environment occurs. For instance, according to the statistics of managing
plastics end-user waste in Europe (28 EU-member states plus Norway and Switzerland) there are only
[1]
9 countries performing very well with recovery rates above 95 % . However, on average the majority
of countries in Europe (21 countries) still landfill more than half of their plastic containing waste
today. Though recognizing that also proper landfilling does not contribute to uncontrolled leakage
into the environment, this survey shows that only few countries in Europe have a good performing
environmental status. It is assumed that other regions, be it on the American continent or in Asia, show
a similar heterogeneous situation.
Any waste that is improperly managed subsequently leaks into the environment and ultimately into the
ocean is unacceptable. Therefore, the priority is to stop waste of any kind, including plastic waste, from
being littered on land and sea. For this purpose, it is important to:
— ensure the effective implementation and execution of existing legislative rules and development
of such legislation in countries if this does not exist within a country, the producer responsibility
schemes — as they are globally in place in some G20 States — should be expanded to further
countries and regions;
— develop and practice efficient and effective waste management systems and infrastructures for
collection, treatment and recovery;
— promote wise consumer behaviour to increase their appreciation of the value of goods and articles
and the opportunities to optimally recover their embedded resources after they have performed
their function and become waste;
— mindfully design products while taking resource efficiency and litter prevention into consideration.
In the following sub-sections, key application areas are described from a variety of sectors where
plastic products may come into contact with the environment during or after its use.
4.2 Packaging
The packaging sector has the largest share of plastics consumption of all sectors where plastics are
used. For packaging, typically polyolefins and bottle grade PET types are used for products such as
films, bags, sacks, bottles and containers, cans, pallets, caps and enclosures, etc., all of which have a
rather short service life.
Packaging materials quickly reach the end of their life after performing a valuable function in protecting
and preserving the goods they contain. It is important that after fulfilling this valuable function they
are properly managed at the end of their use-phase. Hence, the waste management of used packaging is
today one of the most developed schemes, be it within the frame of producer responsibility via private
waste economies or via municipal waste infrastructures. Nevertheless, packaging related items are
found in the environment, see Clause 5.
Basically, such schemes require the efficient implementation and execution of waste legislation
alongside a practical, effective and workable waste infrastructure for the collection and treatment of
packaging waste. This needs sufficient awareness of end-users and consumers about how to discard
and manage their packaging waste. Unless such a combination is realized in all countries, we will not
achieve that same level of effectiveness in managing the recovery of packaging waste at its end of life and
littered packaging will continue to be observed in the environment. Packaging waste is also prone to
8 © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
escape from landfills, if the depositing sites are insufficiently managed. Assessments of littered articles
on land and at sea indicate that packaging is the most visible product when not properly managed.
4.3 Building and construction
The building and construction sector is the second important application sector for plastic materials in
many countries and dominated by polyolefins, PVC, expanded polystyrene and other plastic insulation
materials. Specific take back and waste recovery schemes have been developed by the plastics industry
such as for used window profiles, pipes, cables, floorings, etc. Some products if not properly managed
on construction worksites may escape into the environment, for example through insulating material,
so good site management is essential.
4.4 Mobility and transportation, electrical and electronics
Unlike the aerospace sector which is seeing massive growth in the use of composite materials, the share
of plastics in road vehicles is relatively low, ranging between 5 % and 15 % in European countries.
This means that in the automotive sector, other materials like metals, ceramics, rubber, etc. are more
important. Nevertheless, there is a wide variety of different types of plastics used for cars due to
robust performance requirements such as durability, strength, lightweight, temperature and moisture
as well as corrosion resistance. Therefore, both standard plastics and engineering plastics as well as
composites are used in mobility and transport.
Similar to vehicles, engineering plastics are also used for the electrical and electronics sector, which
again represent a minor proportion of plastics within the final end product. It is estimated that on
average about one fifth of the materials in electrical goods consist of plastics.
Both the mobility and transport sector as well as the electrical and electronics equipment sector
typically require products with a relative long life time. Adequate control requirements for appropriate
waste management and global shipments are necessary for such goods at the end of their life to prevent
their possible unregulated illegal disposal or treatment.
NOTE Tyres seem to be the most important entry of microparticles due to ageing effects which result from
abrasion and partial fragmentation of rubber particles from tyres.
4.5 Agriculture
[40]
Growing use of plastics in agriculture has been reported . It is assumed that global consumption
of plastics in the agricultural sector is still growing. There are different application areas for plastics
such as farming, agricultural and mulch films, textiles, irrigation, home gardening, etc. Plastics in the
agricultural sector are further used in transplant and bedding plant production, as irrigation tape, trays
and pots, tunnels, hay bale wraps, and in greenhouse construction. The extent to which agricultural
soils are mulched with plastic film on a global scale is uncertain. Nonetheless, some information can be
found: in China, in 2011, nearly 20 million hectares were reported to be mulched, with use projected
[42]
to grow 7,1 % or more annually . There are also management procedures where distinct intentional
applications in agriculture can result to the release of plastics, such as fertilisers, including secondary
raw material fertilisers (e.g. sewage sludge, compost or digestate), as well as livestock manure.
In some countries like Germany, France or Spain, specific take back schemes have been established
such as the recycling of mulch films made of polyolefins. Specific utilization of agricultural films with
specifically biodegradable plastic applications is growing in some countries or is under development.
Specific standards, be it for the recycling of polyolefins or the biodegradation of agricultural applicances,
have been developed or are under development at ISO/TC 61 and CEN/TC 249. Regardless of the system
used, it is principally important that plastics used in the agricultural sector are managed properly to
prevent leakage of such products, materials or residues into the environment.
5 Occurrence of plastics in environmental matrix and biota
5.1 General
There are numerous publications on the occurrence of plastics and microplastics in the environment
and the number being published has rapidly increased in the recent years. Results show that plastics
can be found in every studied environment.
The majority of research on plastics in the environment focuses on microplastics. Also, the occurrence
of smaller particles (nanoplastics) cannot be excluded. Moreover, most of the studies about microplastic
focus on the marine environment. From this research, it becomes obvious that field studies are not
easily conducted and a large variety of approaches on sampling and analytical techniques exist for the
identification and quantification of plastics.
This results in the fact that plastics are presented in a wide variety of units such as: microplastics
per litre, spheres per litre, beads per litre, particles per square metre, particles per litre, particles per
kilogram, pieces per kilogram, items per kilogram, kilogram per kilogram, kilogram per litre (litres
can refer to water or sediment and kilogram can refer to dry or wet weight). Also, units are converted
and adapted between publications for specific purposes, and it is not always clear which choices are
made in these conversions. In addition, plastics are classified by shape (fragments, pellets, cosmetic
beads, lines, fibres, films, foams) and type of polymer (polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, etc.).
While the latter is often well determined, the criteria that are used for characterization by shape are
not always obvious.
Hence, there is no uniformity in the collection, processing and analysis of samples and data and there
is a wide variety of categorizing plastics by shape and polymer type and/or composition. This makes a
direct comparison between studies very difficult, and even leads to ambiguity between results. This not
only hinders a good understanding of the dynamics and impacts of plastics and microplastics but also
hinders stakeholders in taking effective measures to address and (if necessary) mitigate the problem.
There exists a large amount of data on plastics and micro plastics in various environmental matrix and
biota. Although these data are not directly comparable, they have led to a broad consensus on possible
sources and sinks as well as possible environmental impacts.
This document mainly focuses on microplastics however, reference is also made to macroplastics and
to studies from which it is not always clear how the distinction is made between the different size
fractions of plastics. This document follows the identification given by the original paper, resulting in
sometimes confusing terminology (plastics vs. microplastics). It gives a brief overview of the current
know
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