SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
(Main)Cranes - General design - Part 3-5: Limit states and proof of competence of forged and cast hooks
Cranes - General design - Part 3-5: Limit states and proof of competence of forged and cast hooks
This European Standard is to be used together with EN 13001-1 and EN 13001-2 and, as such, they specify general conditions, requirements and methods to prevent by design and theoretical verification, mechanical hazards in crane hooks.
This European Standard covers the following parts of hooks and types of hooks:
- bodies of any type of hooks made of steel forgings;
- machined shanks of hooks with a thread/nut suspension.
Principles of this European Standard can be applied to machined shanks of hooks in general. However, stress concentration factors relevant to designs not given in this standard would have to be determined and applied.
NOTE 1 Cast hooks and plate hooks, which are those, assembled of one or several parallel parts of rolled steel plates, are not covered in this European Standard.
The following is a list of significant hazardous situations and hazardous events that could result in risks to persons during normal use and foreseeable misuse. Clauses 4 to 8 of this document are necessary to reduce or eliminate the risks associated with the following hazards:
a) exceeding the limits of strength (yield, ultimate, fatigue);
b) exceeding temperature limits of material.
The requirements of this European Standard are stated in the main body of the document and are applicable to forged hook designs in general.
The commonly used hook body and shank designs listed in Annexes A, B and F are only examples and should not be referred to as requirements of this European Standard. Annex I gives guidance for the selection of a hook size, where a hook body is in accordance with Annex A or B. The selection of hook form is not limited to those shown in Annexes A and B.
This European Standard is applicable to cranes, which are manufactured after the date of approval of this European Standard by CEN, and serves as a reference base for product standards of particular crane types.
NOTE 2 This part of EN 13001 deals only with the limit state method in accordance with EN 13001-1.
FprA1:
Add after 1st paragraph the following sentence:
"
It has to be used together with the other generic parts of EN 13001 series of standards, see Annex L.
".
Replace in 2nd paragraph the 1st list item with:
"
- bodies of any type of hooks made of steel forgings or steel castings, including stainless steel;".
Replace NOTE 1 with:
"
NOTE 1 Plate hooks, which are those, assembled of one or several parallel parts of rolled steel plates, are not covered in this document.".
In the 4th paragraph, replace the 1st list item with:
"
a) exceeding the limits of yield strength, ultimate strength, fatigue strength, brittle fracture;".
Replace the 5th paragraph with:
"The requirements of this document are stated in the main body of the document and are applicable to hook designs in general.".
After 4th paragraph, add the sentence:
"
The hazards covered by this document are identified by Annex M.
".
Krane - Konstruktion allgemein - Teil 3-5: Grenzzustände und Sicherheitsnachweise von geschmiedeten und gegossenen Haken
Diese Europäische Norm ist in Verbindung mit den anderen einschlägigen Teilen der Normenreihe zu sehen. Insgesamt werden darin die allgemeinen Bedingungen, Anforderungen und Methoden zur Verhinderung von Gefahren an Haken als Bestandteil sämtlicher Krantypen festgelegt.
Diese Europäische Norm gilt für folgende Hakenteile und Hakenarten:
- alle Arten von geschmiedeten Spitzhakenkörpern
- bearbeitete Hakenschäfte mit Gewinde-/Mutter-Aufhängung.
ANMERKUNG 1 Die Grundsätze der Europäische Norm sind auch auf andere Arten von Gabelhaken sowie bei der Ermittlung und Verwendung von Spannungskonzentrationsfaktoren, die für die betreffende Schaftkonstruktion von Bedeutung sind, anwendbar. Lamellenhaken, die aus einem oder mehreren parallel angeordneten Blechen aus Walzstahl zusammengesetzt sind, sind nicht Gegenstand dieser Europäische Norm.
Die vorliegende Europäische Norm gilt für Haken aus Werkstoffen mit einer Bruchfestigkeit von maximal 800 N/mm2 und einer Fließgrenze von maximal 600 N/mm2.
Im Folgenden sind signifikante Gefahrensituationen und Gefahrenereignisse aufgeführt, die zu Gefahren für den Menschen während des normalen Gebrauchs und bei vorhersehbarem Missbrauch führen könnten. Abschnitte 4 bis 8 dieses Dokuments sind wichtig, um Risiken, die mit nachfolgend genannten Gefahren verbunden sind, zu minimieren oder zu verhindern:
a) Überschreiten der Festigkeitsgrenzwerte (Fließen, Bruch, Ermüdung);
b) Überschreiten der Temperaturgrenzwerte des Werkstoffs;
c) unbeabsichtigtes Aushängen der Last vom Haken.
Die Anforderungen dieser Europäische Norm sind im Hauptteil des Dokuments beschrieben und gelten für Hakenkonstruktionen allgemein. Die in den Anhängen A, B und G aufgeführten Bemes¬sungen von Hakenkörpern und Hakenschäften dienen nur als Beispiel und sind nicht als Anforderungen dieser Europäische Norm zu verstehen.
Diese Europäische Norm gilt für Krane, die nach dem Datum der Genehmigung dieses Dokuments durch CEN gefertigt werden, und dient als Referenzgrundlage für Europäische Norm von speziellen Krantypen.
ANMERKUNG 2 Dieser Teil der EN 13001 befasst sich nur mit der Methode der Grenzzustände nach EN 13001-1.
Appareils de levage à charge suspendue - Conception générale - Partie 3-5 : États limites et vérification des crochets forgés et moulés
Il convient d’utiliser la présente Norme européenne conjointement avec l'EN 13001-1 et l'EN 13001-2. En tant que telles, elles spécifient les conditions, prescriptions et méthodes générales permettant d’éviter les phénomènes dangereux dus aux crochets par conception et vérification théorique.
Elle est destinée à être utilisée conjointement avec les autres parties générales de la série de normes EN 13001, voir l’Annexe L.
La présente Norme européenne couvre les composants de crochets et types de crochets suivants :
- corps de tout type de crochets à bec en acier forgé ou en acier moulé, incluant des aciers inoxydables ;
- tiges usinées de crochets à suspension par vis/écrou.
Les principes de la présente Norme européenne peuvent s‘appliquer aux tiges usinées des crochets en général. Cependant, des facteurs de concentration des contraintes correspondant aux conceptions qui ne sont pas données dans la présente Norme devraient être déterminés et utilisés.
Les phénomènes dangereux couverts par le présent document sont identifiés à l’Annexe M.
NOTE 1 Les crochets lamellaires constitués de l’assemblage d’une ou de plusieurs tôles en acier laminé ne sont pas couverts par le présent document.
La liste suivante spécifie les situations et les évènements dangereux significatifs susceptibles d’entraîner des risques pour les personnes lors d’une utilisation normale ou d’une mauvaise utilisation prévisible. Les Articles 4 à 8 du présent document sont nécessaires pour réduire ou éliminer les risques associés aux phénomènes dangereux suivants :
a) dépassement de la limite d’élasticité, de la résistance à la rupture, de la résistance à la fatigue, de la résistance à la rupture fragile ;
b) dépassement des limites de température du matériau.
Les prescriptions du présent document sont spécifiées dans le corps du texte du document et s’appliquent aux conceptions de crochet en général.
Les conceptions de corps et de tige de crochet fréquemment utilisées énumérées dans les Annexes A, B et F ne sont fournies qu’à titre d’exemple et il convient de ne pas les citer comme des prescriptions de la présente Norme européenne. L’Annexe I donne des lignes directrices pour la sélection d’une taille de crochet, lorsque le corps du crochet est conforme à l’Annexe A ou B. La sélection d’une forme de crochet n’est pas limitée à celles des Annexes A et B.
La présente Norme européenne s'applique aux appareils de levage à charge suspendue construits après la date d'approbation par le CEN de la présente Norme européenne, et sert de référence pour les normes produit des types particuliers d’appareils de levage à charge suspendue.
NOTE 2 La présente partie de l’EN 13001 considère uniquement la méthode des états limites selon
l’EN 13001-1.
Žerjavi - Konstrukcija, splošno - 3-5. del: Mejna stanja in dokaz varnosti kovanih in litih kavljev
General Information
Relations
Standards Content (Sample)
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
01-september-2021
Žerjavi - Konstrukcija, splošno - 3-5. del: Mejna stanja in dokaz varnosti kovanih in
litih kavljev
Cranes - General design - Part 3-5: Limit states and proof of competence of forged and
cast hooks
Krane - Konstruktion allgemein - Teil 3-5: Grenzzustände und Sicherheitsnachweise von
geschmiedeten und gegossenen Haken
Appareils de levage à charge suspendue - Conception générale - Partie 3-5 : États
limites et vérification des crochets forgés et moulés
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
ICS:
53.020.20 Dvigala Cranes
53.020.30 Pribor za dvigalno opremo Accessories for lifting
equipment
SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 en,fr,de
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1
EUROPEAN STANDARD
NORME EUROPÉENNE
May 2021
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
ICS 53.020.20; 53.020.30 Supersedes EN 13001-3-5:2016
English Version
Cranes - General design - Part 3-5: Limit states and proof
of competence of forged and cast hooks
Appareils de levage à charge suspendue - Conception Krane - Konstruktion allgemein - Teil 3-5:
générale - Partie 3-5 : États limites et vérification des Grenzzustände und Sicherheitsnachweise von
crochets forgés et moulés geschmiedeten und gegossenen Haken
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 19 May 2016 and includes Amendment 1 approved by CEN on 12 April 2021.
CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this
European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references
concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre or to any CEN
member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by
translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management
Centre has the same status as the official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and
United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2021 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 E
worldwide for CEN national Members.
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
Contents Page
European foreword . 5
Introduction . 7
1 Scope . 8
2 Normative references . 8
3 Terms and definitions, symbols and abbreviations . 10
3.1 Terms and definitions . 10
3.2 Symbols and abbreviations . 11
4 General requirements . 14
4.1 Materials . 14
4.1.1 General . 14
4.1.2 Typical standards and grades . 15
4.1.3 Classification of hook materials . 16
4.2 Workmanship . 16
4.2.1 !Forged hooks" . 16
4.2.2 !Cast hooks. 17
4.3 Manufacturing tolerances of forgings . 18
4.4 Heat treatment . 18
4.5 Cold forming by proof loading . 18
4.6 Hook body geometry . 18
4.7 Hook shank machining . 20
4.8 Nut . 21
4.9 Effect of hook suspension . 21
5 Static strength . 21
5.1 General . 21
5.2 Vertical design force . 22
5.3 Horizontal design force . 22
5.4 Bending moment of the shank . 23
5.4.1 General . 23
5.4.2 Bending moment due to horizontal force . 23
5.4.3 Bending moment due to inclination of hook suspension . 24
5.4.4 Bending moment due to eccentricity of vertical force . 25
5.4.5 Exceptional case for ramshorn hooks . 26
5.4.6 Design bending moment of the shank . 26
5.5 Hook body, design stresses . 27
5.5.1 Loadings. 27
5.5.2 Stress calculation methods . 27
5.5.3 Design stresses . 28
5.6 Hook shank, design stresses . 29
5.7 Hook, proof of static strength . 29
5.7.1 General for hook body and shank . 29
5.7.2 !The use of static limit design force for verification of the hook body . 30
6 Fatigue strength . 31
6.1 General . 31
6.2 Vertical fatigue design force. 31
6.3 Horizontal fatigue design force . 31
6.4 Fatigue design bending moment of shank . 32
2
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
6.4.1 Bending moment due to horizontal force . 32
6.4.2 Bending moment due to inclination of hook suspension . 32
6.4.3 Bending moment due to eccentricity of vertical force . 32
6.5 Proof of fatigue strength, hook body . 33
6.5.1 Design stress calculation . 33
6.5.2 Stress history in general . 33
6.5.3 Stress history based upon classified duty . 34
6.5.4 Limit fatigue design stress . 35
6.5.5 Execution of the proof . 37
6.5.6 The use of fatigue limit design force for verification of the hook body . 37
6.6 Proof of fatigue strength, hook shank . 38
6.6.1 General . 38
6.6.2 Design stress calculation . 38
6.6.3 Applied stress cycles. 39
6.6.4 Basic fatigue strength of material . 40
6.6.5 Stress concentration effects from geometry . 40
6.6.6 Fatigue strength of notched shank . 41
6.6.7 Mean stress influence . 42
6.6.8 Transformation to stresses at zero mean stress . 43
6.6.9 Stress history parameter in general . 44
6.6.10 Stress history parameter based upon classified duty . 44
6.6.11 Execution of the proof . 45
6.7 Fatigue design of hook shanks for stand alone hooks . 45
7 Verification of the safety requirements and/or protective measures . 45
7.1 General . 45
7.2 Scope of testing and sampling . 46
7.3 Testing of mechanical properties . 46
7.4 Test loading . 46
8 Information for use . 47
8.1 Maintenance and inspection . 47
8.2 Marking . 48
8.3 Safe use . 49
Annex A (informative) Sets of single hooks . 50
A.1 !A series of single hooks of type RS/RSN, dimensions of hook bodies" . 50
A.2 !A series of single hooks of type RF/RFN, dimensions of hook bodies" . 52
A.3 !A series of single hooks of type B, dimensions of hook bodies" . 54
Annex B (informative) !A series of ramshorn hooks of type RS/RSN and RF/RFN,
dimensions of hook bodies" . 56
Annex C (informative) !Dimensional tolerances of hook bodies" . 58
Annex D (normative) Static limit design forces of hook bodies . 60
D.1 Static limit design forces of hook bodies for hooks of type RS and RF . 60
D.2 Static limit design forces of hook bodies for a series of hooks of type B, with
additional materials . 62
Annex E (normative) Fatigue limit design forces of hook bodies . 63
E.1 !Fatigue limit design forces of hook bodies for forged hooks of type RS and RF" . 63
3
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
E.2 !Fatigue limit design forces of hook bodies for a series of hooks of type B, with
additional, forged materials" . 65
E.3 Fatigue limit design forces of hook bodies for cast hooks of type RS and RF . 65
E.4 Fatigue limit design forces of hook bodies for a series of hooks of type B, with
additional, cast materials . 67
Annex F (informative) Sets of hook shank and thread designs . 68
F.1 A series of hook shank and thread designs, a knuckle thread . 68
F.2 A series of hook shank and thread designs, a metric thread . 70
F.3 A series of hook shank and thread designs, a modified metric thread . 72
F.4 Hook shank and thread designs for hooks of type B . 74
Annex G (normative) Bending of curved beams . 76
G.1 Basic formulae for stresses. 76
G.2 Approximation of the reference moment of inertia . 77
Annex H (normative) Calculation of hook suspension tilting resistance, articulation by a
hinge or a rope reeving system . 79
H.1 General . 79
H.2 Articulation of hook by a hinge . 80
H.3 Articulation of a hook suspension by a balanced rope reeving. 80
Annex I (informative) Guidance for the selection of a hook body size using Annexes D and E . 83
I.1 General . 83
I.2 Case description . 83
I.3 Proof of static strength . 83
I.4 Proof of fatigue strength . 84
I.5 Final selection of hook . 84
Annex J (normative) Information to be provided by the hook manufacturer . 85
Annex K (informative) !Guidance on cold forming by proof loading of forged hooks" . 86
Annex L (informative) Selection of a suitable set of crane standards for a given application . 87
Annex M (informative) !List of hazards . 89
Annex ZA (informative) !Relationship between this European Standard and the essential
requirements of Directive 2006/42/EC aimed to be covered . 91
Bibliography . 92
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
European foreword
This document (EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021) has been prepared by Technical Committee CEN/TC 147
“Crane — Safety”, the secretariat of which is held by DIN.
This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an
identical text or by endorsement, at the latest by November 2021, and conflicting national standards
shall be withdrawn at the latest by November 2021.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. CEN shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
This document supersedes !EN 13001-3-5:2016".
This document includes Amendment 1 approved by CEN on 21 April 2021.
The start and finish of text introduced or altered by amendment is indicated in the text by tags !".
This document has been prepared under a mandate given to CEN by the European Commission and the
European Free Trade Association, and supports essential requirements of EU Directive(s).
For relationship with EU Directive(s), see informative Annex ZA, which is an integral part of this
document.
!The major changes in this document compared to EN 13001-3-5:2016 are in 4.1, 4.2, 6.5.4, 6.6.4 and
8.2 so as to extend the scope of the standard to “cast hooks."
This European Standard is one part of the EN 13001 series. The other parts are as follows:
— Part 1: General principles and requirements
— Part 2: Load actions
— Part 3-1: Limit states and proof of competence of steel structures
— Part 3-2: Limit states and proof of competence of wire ropes in reeving systems
— Part 3-3: Limit states and proof of competence of wheel/rail contacts
1
— Part 3-4: Limit states and proof of competence of machinery - Bearings
2
— Part 3-6: Limit states and proof of competence of machinery - Hydraulic cylinders
For the relationship with other European Standards for cranes, see Annex L.
1
Currently at Enquiry stage.
2
Currently at Enquiry stage.
5
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
According to the CEN-CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organisations of the
following countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of
North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the
United Kingdom.
6
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
Introduction
This European Standard has been prepared to provide a means for the mechanical design and
theoretical verification of cranes to conform to essential health and safety requirements. This European
Standard also establishes interfaces between the user (purchaser) and the designer, as well as between
the designer and the component manufacturer, in order to form a basis for selecting cranes and
components.
This European Standard is a type C standard as stated in EN ISO 12100.
The machinery concerned and the extent to which hazards, hazardous situations and events are
covered are indicated in the scope of this standard.
When provisions of this type C standard are different from those which are stated in type A or B
standards, the provisions of this type C standard take precedence over the provisions of the other
standards, for machines.
7
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
1 Scope
This European Standard is to be used together with EN 13001-1 and EN 13001-2 and, as such, they
specify general conditions, requirements and methods to prevent by design and theoretical verification,
mechanical hazards in crane hooks.
!It is intended to be used together with the other generic parts of EN 13001 series of standards, see
Annex L."
This European Standard covers the following parts of hooks and types of hooks:
— !bodies of any type of hooks made of steel forgings or steel castings, including stainless steel;"
— machined shanks of hooks with a thread/nut suspension.
Principles of this European Standard can be applied to machined shanks of hooks in general. However,
stress concentration factors relevant to designs not given in this standard would have to be determined
and applied.
!The hazards covered by this document are identified by Annex M."
NOTE 1 !Plate hooks, which are those, assembled of one or several parallel parts of rolled steel plates, are
not covered in this document."
The following is a list of significant hazardous situations and hazardous events that could result in risks
to persons during normal use and foreseeable misuse. Clauses 4 to 8 of this document are necessary to
reduce or eliminate the risks associated with the following hazards:
a) !exceeding the limits of yield strength, ultimate strength, fatigue strength, brittle fracture;"
b) exceeding temperature limits of material.
!The requirements of this document are stated in the main body of the document and are applicable
to hook designs in general."
The commonly used hook body and shank designs listed in Annexes A, B and F are only examples and
should not be referred to as requirements of this European Standard. Annex I gives guidance for the
selection of a hook size, where a hook body is in accordance with Annex A or B. The selection of hook
form is not limited to those shown in Annexes A and B.
This European Standard is applicable to cranes, which are manufactured after the date of approval of
this European Standard by CEN, and serves as a reference base for product standards of particular
crane types.
NOTE 2 This part of EN 13001 deals only with the limit state method in accordance with EN 13001–1.
2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this document and are
indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
!EN 1369:2012, Founding — Magnetic particle testing
EN 1370:2011, Founding — Examination of surface condition
8
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SIST EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021
EN 13001-3-5:2016+A1:2021 (E)
EN 1371-1:2011, Founding — Liquid penetrant testing — Part 1: Sand, gravity die and low pressure die
castings
EN 1559-1:2011, Founding — Technical conditions of delivery — Part 1: General
EN 10025-3:2019, Hot rolled products of structural steels — Part 3: Technical delivery conditions for
normalized/normalized rolled weldable fine grain structural steels
EN 10204:2004, Metallic products — Types of inspection documents
EN 10213:2017, Steel castings for pressure purposes
EN 10222-4:2017, Steel forgings for pressure purposes — Part 4: Weldable fine grain steels with high
proof strength
EN 10228-1:2016, Non-destructive testing of steel forgings — Part 1: Magnetic particle inspection
EN 10228-2:2016, Non-destructive testing of steel forgings — Part 2: Penetrant testing
EN 10228-3:2016, Non-destructive testing of steel forgings — Part 3: Ultrasonic testing of ferritic or
martensitic steel forgings
EN 10250-1:1999, Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes — Part 1: General
requirements
EN 10250-2:1999, Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes — Part 2: Non-alloy quality
and special steels
EN 10250-3:1999, Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes — Part 3: Alloy special steels
EN 10254:1999, Steel closed die forgings — General technical delivery conditions
EN 10340:2007, Steel castings for structural uses
EN 12680-1:2003, Founding — Ultrasonic examination — Part 1: Steel castings for general purposes
EN 13001-1:2015, Cranes — General design — Part 1: General principles and requirements
EN 13001-2:2014, Crane safety — General design — Part 2: Load actions
EN 13001-3-2:2014, Cranes — General design — Part 3-2: Limit states and proof of competence of wire
ropes in reeving systems
EN ISO 148-1:2016, Metallic materials — Charpy pendulum impact test — Part 1: Test method (ISO 148-
1:2016)
EN ISO 642:2016, Steel — Hardenability test by end quenching (Jominy test) (ISO 642:1999)
EN ISO 643:2012, Steels — Micrographic determination of the apparent grain size (ISO 643:20
...
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