SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010

Plasma display panels - Part 2-3: Measuring methods - Quality (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)

This part of IEC 61988 determines the measuring methods for defects and degradation of colour plasma display (PDP) module in the following areas: a) cell defects; b) image sticking; c) luminance lifetime.

Plasmabildschirme - Teil 2-3: Messverfahren - Bildqualität: Defekte und Bildverschlechterung (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)

Panneaux d'affichage à plasma - Partie 2-3: Méthodes de mesure - Qualité (CEI 61988-2-3:2009)

La CEI 61988-2-3:2009 détermine les méthodes de mesure des défauts et de la dégradation des modules d'affichage couleur à plasma (PDP, plasma display panels) dans les domaines suivants: a) défauts de cellule; b) image rémanente; c) durée de vie de la luminance.

Plošče s plazemskim prikazovalnikom - 2-3. del: Merilne metode - Kakovost (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)

Ta del standarda IEC 61988 določa merilne metode za okvare in propadanje modula barvnih plazemskih prikazovalnikov (PDP) na naslednjih področjih: a) okvare celic; b) ustavljanje slike; c) življenjska doba svetilnosti.

General Information

• Status: Published
• Publication Date: 14-Dec-2009
• ICS: 31.120 - Electronic display devices
• Technical Committee: I11 - Imaginarni 11
• Current Stage: 6060 - National Implementation/Publication (Adopted Project)
• Start Date: 12-Nov-2009
• Due Date: 17-Jan-2010
• Completion Date: 15-Dec-2009
• Ref Project: EN 61988-2-3:2009 - Plasma display panels - Part 2-3: Measuring methods - Image quality: defects and degradation

Standards Content (Sample)

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
01-januar-2010
3ORãþHVSOD]HPVNLPSULND]RYDOQLNRPGHO0HULOQHPHWRGH.DNRYRVW,(&

Plasma display panels - Part 2-3: Measuring methods - Quality (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)
Plasmabildschirme - Teil 2-3: Messverfahren - Bildqualität: Defekte und
Bildverschlechterung (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)
Panneaux d'affichage à plasma - Partie 2-3: Méthodes de mesure - Qualité (CEI 61988-2
-3:2009)
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN 61988-2-3:2009
ICS:
31.120 Elektronske prikazovalne Electronic display devices
naprave
SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010 en,fr
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
01-januar-2010
3ORãþHVSOD]HPVNLPSULND]RYDOQLNRPGHO0HULOQHPHWRGH.DNRYRVW,(&

Plasma display panels - Part 2-3: Measuring methods - Quality (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)
Plasmabildschirme - Teil 2-3: Messverfahren - Bildqualität: Defekte und
Bildverschlechterung (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)
Panneaux d'affichage à plasma - Partie 2-3: Méthodes de mesure - Qualité (CEI 61988-2
-3:2009)
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN 61988-2-3:2009
ICS:
31.260 Optoelektronika, laserska Optoelectronics. Laser
oprema equipment
SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010 en,fr
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010

EUROPEAN STANDARD
EN 61988-2-3

NORME EUROPÉENNE
November 2009
EUROPÄISCHE NORM

ICS 31.260


English version


Plasma display panels -
Part 2-3: Measuring methods -
Image quality: defects and degradation
(IEC 61988-2-3:2009)


Panneaux d'affichage à plasma -  Plasmabildschirme -
Partie 2-3: Méthodes de mesure - Teil 2-3: Messverfahren -
Qualité d'image: défauts Bildqualität: Defekte
et dégradation und Bildverschlechterung
(CEI 61988-2-3:2009) (IEC 61988-2-3:2009)




This European Standard was approved by CENELEC on 2009-09-01. CENELEC members are bound to comply
with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard
the status of a national standard without any alteration.

Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national standards may be obtained on
application to the Central Secretariat or to any CENELEC member.

This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other
language made by translation under the responsibility of a CENELEC member into its own language and notified
to the Central Secretariat has the same status as the official versions.

CENELEC members are the national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

CENELEC
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique
Europäisches Komitee für Elektrotechnische Normung

Central Secretariat: Avenue Marnix 17, B - 1000 Brussels


© 2009 CENELEC - All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved worldwide for CENELEC members.
Ref. No. EN 61988-2-3:2009 E

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
EN 61988-2-3:2009 - 2 -
Foreword
The text of document 110/180/FDIS, future edition 1 of IEC 61988-2-3, prepared by IEC TC 110, Flat
panel display devices, was submitted to the IEC-CENELEC parallel vote and was approved by CENELEC
as EN 61988-2-3 on 2009-09-01.
The following dates were fixed:
– latest date by which the EN has to be implemented
at national level by publication of an identical
national standard or by endorsement (dop) 2010-06-01
– latest date by which the national standards conflicting
with the EN have to be withdrawn (dow) 2012-09-01
Annex ZA has been added by CENELEC.
__________
Endorsement notice
The text of the International Standard IEC 61988-2-3:2009 was approved by CENELEC as a European
Standard without any modification.
In the official version, for Bibliography, the following notes have to be added for the standards indicated:
IEC 61966-5 NOTE  Harmonized as EN 61966-5:2009 (not modified).
IEC 61988-2-2 NOTE  Harmonized as EN 61988-2-2:2003 (not modified).
__________

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
- 3 - EN 61988-2-3:2009

Annex ZA
(normative)

Normative references to international publications
with their corresponding European publications

The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.

NOTE  When an international publication has been modified by common modifications, indicated by (mod), the relevant EN/HD
applies.

Publication Year Title EN/HD Year

1)
IEC 60068-1 1988 Environmental testing - EN 60068-1 1994
Part 1: General and guidance


IEC 60107-1 1997 Methods of measurement on receivers for EN 60107-1 1997
television broadcast transmissions -
Part 1: General considerations -
Measurements at radio and video frequencies


2) 3)
IEC 61988-1 - Plasma display panels - EN 61988-1 2003
Part 1: Terminology and letter symbols


IEC 61988-2-1 2002 Plasma display panels - EN 61988-2-1 2002
Part 2-1: Measuring methods - Optical


CIE 15 2004 Colorimetry - -




1)
EN 60068-1 includes A1:1992 to IEC 60068-1 + corr. October 1988.
2)
Undated reference.
3)
Valid edition at date of issue.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
IEC 61988-2-3
®
Edition 1.0 2009-07
INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD
NORME
INTERNATIONALE


Plasma display panels –
Part 2-3: Measuring methods – Image quality: defects and degradation

Panneaux d’affichage à plasma –
Partie 2-3: Méthodes de mesure – Qualité d’image: défauts et dégradation

INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
COMMISSION
ELECTROTECHNIQUE
PRICE CODE
INTERNATIONALE
S
CODE PRIX
ICS 31.260 ISBN 2-8318-1052-6
® Registered trademark of the International Electrotechnical Commission
Marque déposée de la Commission Electrotechnique Internationale

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
– 2 – 61988-2-3 © IEC:2009
CONTENTS
FOREWORD.4
1 Scope.6
2 Normative references .6
3 Terms and definitions .6
4 Standard measuring conditions.7
4.1 Environmental conditions .7
4.2 Lighting conditions .7
4.3 Set-up conditions .7
4.3.1 Adjustment of PDP modules .7
4.3.2 Warm-up condition of PDP modules .7
4.3.3 Conditions of measuring and driving equipment.7
5 Measuring methods .8
5.1 Cell defects .8
5.1.1 Purpose.8
5.1.2 Measuring equipment .8
5.1.3 Measuring layout .8
5.1.4 Division of display zone .8
5.1.5 Classification of cell defects .9
5.1.6 Luminance levels of defective cells.9
5.1.7 Measuring procedure.11
5.2 Image sticking .12
5.2.1 Purpose.12
5.2.2 Measuring equipment .12
5.2.3 Specification of image sticking.13
5.2.4 Measuring procedure.13
5.3 Luminance lifetime .15
5.3.1 Purpose.15
5.3.2 Measuring equipment .16
5.3.3 Measuring procedure.16
Annex A (informative) Luminance lifetime estimation .18
Bibliography.23

Figure 1 – Measuring system and its arrangement .8
Figure 2 – Example of display zone .9
Figure 3 – Dark defect on green screen and its luminance level.10
Figure 4 – Bright defect on white screen and its luminance level.10
Figure 5 – Bright defect on black screen and its luminance level.10
Figure 6 – Bright defect on other colour screen and its luminance level .11
Figure 7 – Image sticking pattern .13
Figure 8 – Image sticking measuring position.14
Figure 9 – Stabilization of luminance lifetime measurement .16
Figure 10 – Example of luminance lifetime measurement.17
Figure A.1 – An example of luminance degradation under different luminance
conditions .19

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
61988-2-3 © IEC:2009 – 3 –
Figure A.2 – The luminance degradation on log t axis .19
1/2
Figure A.3 – The luminance degradation on L(t) vs. t axis (an example of straight
line) .21
1/2
Figure A.4 – The luminance degradation on L(t) vs. t axis .21
Figure A.5 – Flow of luminance lifetime estimation.22

Table 1 – Input signal for cell defect observation .12
Table 2 – An example record of cell defects.12
Table 3 – Example of image sticking coefficient measurement (full screen red) .15

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
– 4 – 61988-2-3 © IEC:2009
INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION
––––––––––––

PLASMA DISPLAY PANELS –

Part 2-3: Measuring methods –
Image quality: defects and degradation


FOREWORD
1) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising
all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, IEC publishes International Standards, Technical Specifications,
Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications (PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as “IEC
Publication(s)”). Their preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested
in the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-
governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. IEC collaborates closely
with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by
agreement between the two organizations.
2) The formal decisions or agreements of IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an international
consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation from all
interested IEC National Committees.
3) IEC Publications have the form of recommendations for international use and are accepted by IEC National
Committees in that sense. While all reasonable efforts are made to ensure that the technical content of IEC
Publications is accurate, IEC cannot be held responsible for the way in which they are used or for any
misinterpretation by any end user.
4) In order to promote international uniformity, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC Publications
transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional publications. Any divergence
between any IEC Publication and the corresponding national or regional publication shall be clearly indicated in
the latter.
5) IEC provides no marking procedure to indicate its approval and cannot be rendered responsible for any
equipment declared to be in conformity with an IEC Publication.
6) All users should ensure that they have the latest edition of this publication.
7) No liability shall attach to IEC or its directors, employees, servants or agents including individual experts and
members of its technical committees and IEC National Committees for any personal injury, property damage or
other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether direct or indirect, or for costs (including legal fees) and
expenses arising out of the publication, use of, or reliance upon, this IEC Publication or any other IEC
Publications.
8) Attention is drawn to the Normative references cited in this publication. Use of the referenced publications is
indispensable for the correct application of this publication.
9) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this IEC Publication may be the subject of
patent rights. IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard IEC 61988-2-3 has been prepared by IEC technical committee 110:
Flat panel display devices.
The text of this standard is based on the following documents:
FDIS Report on voting
110/180/FDIS 110/188/RVD

Full information on the voting for the approval on this standard can be found in the report on
voting indicated in the above table.
This publication has been drafted in accordance with the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
A list of all the parts in the IEC 61988 series, under the general title Plasma display panels,
can be found on the IEC website.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
61988-2-3 © IEC:2009 – 5 –
The committee has decided that the contents of this publication will remain unchanged until
the maintenance result date indicated on the IEC web site under "http://webstore.iec.ch" in
the data related to the specific publication. At this date, the publication will be
• reconfirmed;
• withdrawn;
• replaced by a revised edition, or
• amended.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
– 6 – 61988-2-3 © IEC:2009
PLASMA DISPLAY PANELS –

Part 2-3: Measuring methods –
Image quality: defects and degradation



1 Scope
This part of IEC 61988 determines the measuring methods for defects and degradation of
colour plasma display (PDP) module in the following areas:
a) cell defects;
b) image sticking;
c) luminance lifetime.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document.
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition
of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
IEC 60068-1:1988, Environmental testing – Part 1: General and guidance
IEC 60107-1:1997, Methods of measurement on receivers for television broadcast
transmissions – Part 1: General considerations – Measurements at radio and video
frequencies
IEC 61988-1, Plasma display panels – Part 1: Terminology and letter symbols
IEC 61988-2-1:2002, Plasma display panels – Part 2-1: Measuring methods – Optical
CIE 15:2004, Colorimetry, 3rd Edition (ISBN 978 3 901906 33 6)
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, most of the terms and definitions used, comply with
IEC 61988-1, IEC 60068-1 and IEC 60107-1, and the followings apply.
3.1
cell defect
cell showing a dark defect or a bright defect, or an unstable cell
3.2
defect luminance ratio
percentage of luminance difference from the full screen white-level luminance of each colour
3.3
unstable cell
cell that changes luminance in an uncontrollable way

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
61988-2-3 © IEC:2009 – 7 –
4 Standard measuring conditions
4.1 Environmental conditions
Measurements shall be carried out under the standard environmental conditions, e.g. at a
temperature of 25 °C ± 3 °C, a relative humidity of 25 % to 85 % and pressure of 86 kPa to
106 kPa. When different environmental conditions are used, it shall be noted on the report.
4.2 Lighting conditions
The following dark-room conditions shall be used for all measurements. Illuminance shall be
less than 1 lx anywhere on the screen of the PDP module. When this illuminance significantly
affects the measurement of the black level, the background subtraction method shall be used.
In case of a different illuminance or if the background subtraction method is used, it shall be
noted on the report.
4.3 Set-up conditions
Standard set-up conditions are given below. Each condition shall be noted on the
specification form whenever any measurement is carried out under conditions that differ from
the standard set-up conditions.
4.3.1 Adjustment of PDP modules
For contrast adjustable PDP module, set the maximum contrast under the standard measuring
environmental conditions (see 4.1), measurements shall be started when the PDP module
achieves stability.
4.3.2 Warm-up condition of PDP modules
Measurements shall be started after warm-up when the PDP module achieves stability. The
warm-up time shall be longer than 30 min with signal input set at 15 % grey level on full
screen without gamma correction. Measurements shall be started after the above warm-up
when the PDP module achieves stability, unless other specified measuring methods are used.
When different warm-up conditions are used, they shall be noted on the report.
4.3.3 Conditions of measuring and driving equipment
a) The light measuring device shall be aligned perpendicular to the area to be measured on
the screen of the PDP module.
b) The standard measuring distance ℓ is 2,5 V, where V is the screen height or the short
X0
side length of the screen. The measuring distance shall be between 1,6 V and 2,8 V. The
measuring distance shall be noted on the report (see Figure 1).
c) The light measuring device shall be set at a proper aperture angle less than or equal to 2 °
and shall measure an area of at least 500 pixels which has an extent less than 10 % of the
screen height. This area corresponds to a circular measurement area of at least 26 lines
in diameter in the case of a display panel having a square pixel consisting of 3 subpixels.
The measuring distance and the aperture angle may be adjusted to achieve a viewing
area greater than 500 pixels which has an extent less than 10 % of the screen height if
setting the above aperture angle is difficult. Such deviations from standard conditions shall
be noted on the report.
d) The standard field frequency of the driving signal equipment shall be 60 Hz, unless the
module is intended to be used at a significantly different frequency. In any case, the field
frequency used shall be noted on the report.
e) In case of visual inspection, the inspector shall observe the area to be measured on the
screen of the colour plasma display module from the same position of light measuring
devices.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
– 8 – 61988-2-3 © IEC:2009

Colour plasma
display module
Display surface
Light measuring device
Driving Driving
power signal
source
ℓ
X0
IEC  1242/09

Figure 1 – Measuring system and its arrangement
5 Measuring methods
5.1 Cell defects
5.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this method is to measure the cell defects of the PDP modules.
5.1.2 Measuring equipment
The following equipment shall be used:
a) Driving power source
b) Driving signal equipment
c) Automatic defect inspection instrument (optional).
5.1.3 Measuring layout
Measurements shall be carried out at the standard measuring layout shown in Figure 1. When
a different measuring layout is used, this shall be noted on the report. When visual inspection
is used, the inspector should observe the module from the same place as the light measuring
equipment which is defined in the standard measuring layout.
5.1.4 Division of display zone
The whole screen is usually divided into two zones during the measurement, as shown in
Figure 2.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
61988-2-3 © IEC:2009 – 9 –

B-ZONE
A-ZONE
0,5 V V
(25 %)
0,5 H
H
IEC  1243/09

Key
1  A-zone, the 25 % area of inner box
2  B-zone, the remaining 75 % area in the outer box
Figure 2 – Example of display zone
In this example, the centre of A-zone collides to the screen centre and the ratio of the size of
A-zone to that of the screen area may be defined. Figure 2 shows an example of 25 % area
and the horizontal and vertical ratio are both 0,5.
For the measurement of cell defects, the number of defect cells may be separately observed
on each separated screen zone as shown in Figure 2, when required in the relevant
specification.
5.1.5 Classification of cell defects
Cell defects are classified as follows: dark defect, bright defect and unstable cell.
For the definitions, see 3.3 of this standard and IEC 61988-1.
5.1.6 Luminance levels of defective cells
The luminance level for each defect on each screen condition is defined as the defect
luminance ratio X, Y, Z or V as follows:
– A dark defect (R, G, or B) has a luminance which is darker than X % of the luminance of
full screen R, G or B respectively (see Figure 3).
– A bright defect (R, G, or B) on white, or same colour screen has a luminance which is
brighter than Y % of the luminance of full screen R, G, or B respectively (see Figure 4).
– A bright defect (R, G, or B) on black screen has a luminance which is brighter than Z % of
the luminance of full screen R, G or B respectively (see Figure 5).
– A bright defect (R, G, or B) on other colours (for an example, red bright defect on full
screen green, or phosphor contamination) has a luminance which is brighter than V % of
the luminance of full screen R, G or B respectively (see Figure 6).
The X, Y, Z or V values can be different for each colour defect. The values chosen for X, Y, Z
and V shall be given in the report.

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
– 10 – 61988-2-3 © IEC:2009

R G B R G B R G B R G B R G B R G B
100
X
Defect
levels
0
Luminance of
Luminance of
defect cell
full screen
a) Green dark defect on b) Full screen green
green cell
green screen
c) Luminance level of
defect cell
IEC  1244/09


Figure 3 – Dark defect on green screen and its luminance level


R G B R G B R G B  R G B R G B R G B
Defect
levels
Y
100
 0
Luminance of Luminance of
defect cell full screen
a) Green bright defect on b) Full screen green green cell
white screen
c) Luminance level of
defect cell
IEC  1245/09


Figure 4 – Bright defect on white screen and its luminance level

R G B R G B R G B R G B R G B R G B
100
Defect
levels
Z
0
Luminance of Luminance of
defect cell full screen
green cell
a) Green bright defect on
b) Full screen green
c) Luminance level of
black screen
defect cell
IEC  1246/09

Figure 5 – Bright defect on black screen and its luminance level

Relative luminance (%)
Relative luminance (%)
Relative luminance (%)

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
61988-2-3 © IEC:2009 – 11 –

R G B R G B R G B
R G B R G B R G B
100
a1) Green bright defect on
blue screen
Defect
levels
V
R G B R G B R G B
0
Luminance of Luminance of
defect cell full screen
green cell
b) Full screen green
c) Luminance level of
defect cell
Phosphor contamination
(green on blue cell)
a2) Green bright defect on
blue screen by
phosphor contamination
IEC  1247/09

Figure 6 – Bright defect on other colour screen and its luminance level
Peak to peak luminance variation ratio of unstable cell, W W W : The peak to peak
R G B
luminance variation of an unstable cell is greater than W % of the full screen R, G and B
respectively.
The judgment whether a cell is a defect cell or not, is specified on the relevant specification.
5.1.7 Measuring procedure
Warm up the PDP module according to the procedure described in 4.3.2. The measurement
shall be performed under dark-room conditions (see 4.2.1).
Applied input signals are full screen black, full screen white, full screen red, full screen green,
and full screen blue. When different screen condition(s) are applied, they shall be reported.
Observed defect types on each screen are as follows:
– dark defect, bright defect and unstable cell on full screen white,
– bright defect and unstable cell on full screen black,
– bright defect, red dark defect and unstable cell on full screen red,
– bright defect, green dark defect and unstable cell on full screen green, and
– bright defect, blue dark defect and unstable cell on full screen blue.
Applied signal conditions and observed defect types are summarized in Table 1.
Input one of a full screen black, white, red, green and blue signals to the module. Each signal
is described in Table 1. Observe cell defects and classify them to three types of cell defects.
Record the number of three type cell defects. Observation area on the screen may be divided
into two zones as shown in Figure 2. An input signal is changed to another signal after the
observation of the cell defects of one signal is completed.
Relative luminance (%)

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SIST EN 61988-2-3:2010
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After the measurement of all input signals, record the total number of the defects and finish
the measurement.
The record of cell defects may be summarized as Table 2.
Table 1 – Input signal for cell defect observation
Input signal level
Observed defect of each colour (R,
Signal Display area
a
％ G, B)
Bright Dark Unstable
Red Green Blue
defect defect cell
Full screen
0 0 0 R, G, B - R, G, B Full screen
black
Full screen
100 100 100 R, G, B R, G, B R, G, B Full screen
white
Full screen red 100 0 0 R, G, B R R, G, B Full screen
Full screen
0 100 0 R, G, B G R, G, B Full screen
green
Full screen
0 0 100 R, G, B B R, G, B Full screen
blue
a
On black screen a dark defect (R, G, or B) is not observed, and a red dark defect is not observed on other
colour (G or B) screen for an example.

Table 2 – An example record of cell defects
Bright defect Dark defect Unstable cell
Signal
...