oSIST prEN 17528:2020

Clothing - physiological effects - Measurement of water vapour resistance by means of a sweating manikin

This European Standard describes the requirements of the sweating manikin and the test procedure used to measure the water vapor resistance of a clothing ensemble, as it becomes effective for the wearer in practical use in a defined environment, with the wearer either standing or moving. This water vapor resistance, among other parameters, can be used to determine the effect of clothing on the physiology of the wearer in specific climate/activity scenarios.

Bekleidung - Physiologische Wirkungen - Messung des Wasserdampfdurchgangswiderstandes mittels einer schwitzenden Prüfpuppe

Dieses Dokument legt die Anforderungen an die schwitzende Prüfpuppe und das Prüfverfahren zur Messung des Wasserdampfdurchgangswiderstands einer Bekleidungskombination fest, wie sich diese bei der praktischen Verwendung in einer festgelegten Umgebung auf den stehenden oder sich bewegenden Träger auswirkt. Dieser Wasserdampfdurchgangswiderstand kann neben anderen Parametern verwendet werden, um die Wirkung der Bekleidung auf die Physiologie des Trägers unter bestimmten klimatischen oder Tätigkeitsbedingungen zu bestimmen.

Vêtements - Effets physiologiques - Mesurage de la résistance à la vapeur d’eau à l'aide du mannequin transpirant

Le présent document décrit les exigences applicables au mannequin transpirant et le mode opératoire d’essai utilisé pour mesurer la résistance à la vapeur d’eau d’un ensemble de vêtements, au moment où il devient efficace pour la personne qui le porte dans la pratique, dans un environnement défini, que cette personne soit immobile ou en mouvement. Cette résistance à la vapeur d’eau, entre autres paramètres, peut être utilisée pour déterminer l’effet du vêtement sur la physiologie de la personne qui le porte dans des scénarios de climat/d’activités spécifiques.

Oblačila - Fiziološki učinki - Merjenje odpornosti proti vodni pari s pomočjo lutke za potenje

General Information

• Status: Not Published
• Public Enquiry End Date: 01-Jul-2020
• ICS: 61.020 - Clothes
• Technical Committee: ITEK - Textile and textile products
• Current Stage: 4020 - Public enquire (PE) (Adopted Project)
• Start Date: 22-Apr-2020
• Due Date: 09-Sep-2020
• Completion Date: 02-Jul-2020
• Ref Project: prEN 17528 - Clothing - physiological effects - Measurement of water vapour resistance by means of a sweating manikin

Standards Content (sample)

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
oSIST prEN 17528:2020
01-junij-2020

Oblačila - Fiziološki učinki - Merjenje odpornosti proti vodni pari s pomočjo lutke

za potenje

Clothing - physiological effects - Measurement of water vapour resistance by means of a

sweating manikin
Bekleidung - Physiologische Wirkungen - Messung des
Wasserdampfdurchgangswiderstandes mittels einer schwitzenden Prüfpuppe
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: prEN 17528
ICS:
61.020 Oblačila Clothes
oSIST prEN 17528:2020 en

2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

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oSIST prEN 17528:2020
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oSIST prEN 17528:2020
DRAFT
EUROPEAN STANDARD
prEN 17528
NORME EUROPÉENNE
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
June 2020
ICS 61.020
English Version
Clothing - physiological effects - Measurement of water
vapour resistance by means of a sweating manikin
Bekleidung - Physiologische Wirkungen - Messung des
Wasserdampfdurchgangswiderstandes mittels einer
schwitzenden Prüfpuppe

This draft European Standard is submitted to CEN members for enquiry. It has been drawn up by the Technical Committee

CEN/TC 248.

If this draft becomes a European Standard, CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations

which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration.

This draft European Standard was established by CEN in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other

language made by translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC

Management Centre has the same status as the official versions.

CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,

Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway,

Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and

United Kingdom.

Recipients of this draft are invited to submit, with their comments, notification of any relevant patent rights of which they are

aware and to provide supporting documentation.

Warning : This document is not a European Standard. It is distributed for review and comments. It is subject to change without

notice and shall not be referred to as a European Standard.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels

© 2020 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. prEN 17528:2020 E

worldwide for CEN national Members.
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Contents Page

European foreword ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 4

1 Scope .................................................................................................................................................................... 5

2 Normative references .................................................................................................................................... 5

3 Terms and definitions ................................................................................................................................... 5

4 Symbols and abbreviated terms ................................................................................................................ 7

5 Measurement and test methods ................................................................................................................ 7

5.1 Principle ............................................................................................................................................................. 7

5.2 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................................................... 8

5.2.1 Standard Manikin ........................................................................................................................................... 8

5.2.2 Controlled climatic chamber ...................................................................................................................... 9

5.3 Selection and preparation of test garments .......................................................................................... 9

5.4 Test procedure ............................................................................................................................................... 10

5.5 Expression of test results and calculation ........................................................................................... 10

5.6 Test report ....................................................................................................................................................... 11

Annex A (informative) Guidelines to determine sweating rate ................................................................. 13

Annex B (informative) Reference ensemble ..................................................................................................... 16

Annex C (normative) Measurement of clothing area factor (f ) ................................................................ 17

Annex D (informative) Correction of the acquired evaporative resistance values for textile

skin temperatures ........................................................................................................................................ 21

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................. 23

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European foreword

This document (prEN 17528:2020) has been prepared by Technical Committee CEN/TC 248 “Textiles

and Textile Products”, the secretariat of which is held by BSI.
This document is currently submitted to the CEN Enquiry.
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Introduction

The type of clothing worn by people directly affects the heat exchange between the human body and the

environment. The heat transfer is both sensible (conduction, convection, and radiation) and latent

(evaporation). The water vapour resistance of a clothing ensemble is dependent upon the designs and

materials used in the component garments, the amount of body surface area covered by the clothing,

the distribution of the layers over the body, looseness or tightness of fit, and the increased surface area

for heat loss. Water vapour resistance measurements made on fabrics alone do not take these factors

into account. Measurements of the resistance to evaporative heat loss provided by clothing can be used

with thermal insulation values (EN ISO 15831:2004) to determine the comfort or stress of people in

different environments.
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1 Scope

This document describes the requirements of the sweating manikin and the test procedure used to

measure the water vapour resistance of a clothing ensemble, as it becomes effective for the wearer in

practical use in a defined environment, with the wearer either standing or moving. This water vapour

resistance, among other parameters, can be used to determine the effect of clothing on the physiology of

the wearer in specific climate/activity scenarios.
2 Normative references

The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content

constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For

undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.

EN ISO 11092, Textiles — Physiological effects — Measurement of thermal and water-vapour resistance

under steady-state conditions (sweating guarded-hotplate test) (ISO 11092)

EN ISO 15831:2004, Clothing — Physiological effects — Measurement of thermal insulation by means of a

thermal manikin (ISO 15831:2004)
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.

ISO and IEC maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:

— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https://www.iso.org/obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https://www.electropedia.org/
3.1
clothing ensemble
group of garments worn together on the body at the same time
3.2
water vapour resistance of clothing

water-vapour pressure difference between the manikin’s skin surface and ambient atmosphere divided

by the resulting evaporative heat flux per unit area in the direction of the gradient of water-vapour

pressure
3.3
total water vapour resistance of clothing
et, M

total water-vapour resistance from manikin’s surface to ambient atmosphere, including clothing and

boundary air layer, under defined conditions measured with a stationary manikin
Note 1 to entry: R is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
et, M
3.4
resultant total water vapour resistance of clothing
etr, M

total water-vapour resistance from manikin’s surface to ambient atmosphere, including clothing and

boundary air layer, under defined conditions measured with a manikin moving its legs and arms

Note 1 to entry: Retr, M is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
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3.5
air water vapour resistance
ea, M

water-vapour resistance of the boundary (surface) air layer around the sweating nude manikin, under

defined conditions measured with a stationary manikin
Note 1 to entry: Rea, M is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
3.6
resultant air water vapour resistance
ear, M

water-vapour resistance of the boundary (surface) air layer around the sweating nude manikin, under

defined conditions measured with a manikin moving its legs and arms
Note 1 to entry: R is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
ear, M
3.7
basic water vapour resistance of clothing
Recl, M

water-vapour resistance from manikin’s surface to the outer clothing surface (including enclosed air

layers), under defined conditions measured with a stationary manikin
Note 1 to entry: R is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
ecl, M
3.8
resultant basic water vapour resistance of clothing
eclr, M

water-vapour resistance from manikin’s surface to the outer clothing surface (including enclosed air

layers), under defined conditions measured with a manikin moving its legs and arms

Note 1 to entry: Reclr, M is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
3.9
effective water vapour resistance of clothing
ecle, M

increase in water-vapour resistance provided to a sweating manikin by a clothing ensemble compared

to the water-vapour resistance of the sweating nude manikin, under defined conditions measured with

a stationary manikin
Note 1 to entry: Recle, M is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
3.10
resultant effective water vapour resistance of clothing
ecler, M

increase in water-vapour resistance provided to a sweating manikin by a clothing ensemble compared

to the water-vapour resistance of the sweating nude manikin, under defined conditions measured with

a manikin moving its legs and arms
Note 1 to entry: Recler, M is expressed in square metres pascal per watt.
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3.11
clothing area factor

ratio of the outer surface of the clothed manikin to the surface area of the nude manikin

Note 1 to entry: fcl is dimensionless and is always higher or equal to 1.
4 Symbols and abbreviated terms
A total wet body surface area of the manikin m
ai surface area of the body segment i of the manikin m
f fraction of the total manikin surface area represented by the surface area of
segment i
H total heating power supplied to the manikin W
H heating power supplied to the body segment i of the manikin W
RH relative humidity of the air within the climatic chamber %
T air temperature within the climatic chamber °C
T mean surface temperature of the manikin °C
T surface temperature of the body segment i of the manikin °C
p water vapour pressure of the air within the climatic chamber Pa
ps water vapour pressure at the manikin’s sweating surface Pa

p water vapour pressure at the body segment i of the manikin’s sweating surface Pa

v air speed in the climatic chamber m/s
5 Measurement and test methods
5.1 Principle

The components of the clothing ensemble to be tested are placed on the manikin in the same

arrangement as in practical use.

The manikin in the shape and size of an adult human body and, for the measurement of R , with

etr, M

movable legs and arms, is internally heated to a constant skin surface temperature, uniform over its

body. The manikin is placed in a climatic chamber where defined air temperature and air speed can be

set, and air humidity controlled.

There will be an evaporative heat flow from the manikin's skin surface area through the clothing into

the ambient air, which is measured after steady-state conditions have been reached. From this heat

flow, related to the sweating nude manikin's body surface area, the clothing ensemble's water vapour

resistance can be calculated, considering the difference of water-vapour partial pressure between the

manikin's skin surface and the ambient air.

The measurement is performed with the manikin stationary and/or moving its legs and arms, with a

defined number of movements per minute and a defined stride length. The water-vapour resistance

values obtained include the water-vapour resistance provided by the clothing and the adhering air layer

around the body. They apply only to the particular clothing ensemble, as tested, and to the specific

conditions of the test, particularly with respect to the air movement around the manikin.

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NOTE: The principles described in this document can also be applied for other kinds of manikins (e.g. child

manikin, female manikin, partial manikin, for example hand, torso, foot).
5.2 Apparatus
5.2.1 Standard Manikin
5.2.1.1 Size and shape

The manikin, made from metal or plastic, shall be constructed to simulate the body of an adult human,

i.e. it shall consist of an anatomically formed head, chest, abdomen, back, buttocks, arms, hands

(preferably with individual fingers extended to allow gloves to be worn), legs and feet.

NOTE: Experience shows that at least 15 body segments provide reasonable homogenous surface temperature,

allow monitor heat flux and provide information about local differences.

The body height of the standard manikin shall be (1,70 ± 0,15) m, with a body surface area of (1,7 ± 0,3)

m .

The manikin's body proportions should correspond to those required for standard sizes of garments,

because deviations in fit will affect the results.

For the measurement of R the manikin's arms and legs shall be movable, with joints at least at the

etr,M

shoulder and hip. For the measurement of the clothing ensemble's resultant total water-vapour

resistance, R , the manikin, mechanically driven, shall perform (45 ± 2) double steps per min, and

etr,M

(45 ± 2) double arm movements per min cross walking. The stride length, measured from toe to toe,

shall be (63 ± 10) cm, and the length of the arm movements, measured between the wrists at the base of

the thumbs, (53 ± 10) cm.
5.2.1.2 Sweat generation

The manikin shall have the ability to evaporate water from its surface. Sweating can be simulated either

by a tight fitting water saturated textile skin body suit, for example high absorptive cotton or a tight

fitting water-fed capillary body suit (cotton or other appropriate textile) worn over the thermal

manikin. The entire surface of the manikin shall be heated and saturated before the start of the test.

It shall be guaranteed that all parts of the manikin skin do not dry out during the test. This can be

checked by monitoring the stability of the heating power supply for individual zones.

If a water-fed capillary system is used for sweat generation, each manikin’s segment should be

controlled individually regarding the sweating rate.
5.2.1.3 Surface temperature

The manikin shall be constructed so as to maintain the same average constant temperature Ts of

(34,0 ± 0,2) °C measured at all segment surfaces.

The surface temperatures of the manikin shall be measured by at least one appropriate temperature

sensor (e.g. thermocouples, thermistors, resistance temperature devices) per body segment. The

sensors shall not protrude more than 0,5 mm from the manikin's surface and shall be well bonded, both

mechanically and thermally, to the manikin's surface. Lead wires shall be bonded to the surface, or

preferably pass through the interior of the manikin.

When calculating the mean skin surface temperature of the manikin's body, each sensor temperature

shall be area-weighted, considering the portion of the body surface area covered by the sensor.

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5.2.1.4 Heating equipment and power measurement

Each body segment of the manikin shall be equipped with an independently controlled heating system,

whose capacity is sufficiently high to guarantee a constant surface temperature of (34,0 ± 0,2) °C in the

nude manikin at each body segment.

The dry heat flow from the manikin's body through the clothing can be determined by measuring the

heating power necessary to maintain a constant surface temperature, supplied to each of the manikin's

body segments during the test period.

The power measuring equipment shall be capable of giving an accurate average over the test period. Its

accuracy shall be within ± 2 % of the value for the average power supplied to each body segment of the

manikin during the test period.
5.2.2 Controlled climatic chamber
5.2.2.1 General

The manikin shall be placed in a controlled climatic chamber, at least 2 m × 2 m × 2 m

(length × width × height). The air flow in the chamber may be horizontal or vertical.

In the chamber, spatial uniformity shall be verified by recording values for the test conditions (see 5.4)

at heights of 0,1, 1,1, and 1,7 m above the manikin sole height at the location occupied by the manikin.

The temperature of the walls, floor and ceiling shall not differ more than 1 °C from the mean air

temperature.
5.2.2.2 Air temperature sensor(s)

To monitor the air temperature in the chamber during the test, a single sensor with an overall accuracy

of ± 0,15 °C and a time constant not exceeding 1 min may be used. However, multiple sensors are

preferable.

The temperature sensor(s) shall be placed at a distance of (0,5 ± 0,1) m from the manikin. If a single

sensor is used, it shall be at least 1,0 m above the floor of the chamber. If multiple sensors are used, they

shall be spaced at equal height intervals, and their readings averaged.
5.2.2.3 Relative humidity sensor

Any humidity sensing device with an accuracy of at least ± 2 % relative humidity and a repeatability

of ± 3 % is acceptable. Only one location in the chamber needs to be monitored during the test to ensure

that the temporal uniformity requirements mentioned in 5.2.2.1 are met.
5.2.2.4 Air speed sensor

For measuring the air speed in the climatic chamber an omni-directional anemometer with ± 0,05 m/s

accuracy shall be used. Measurements shall be averaged for at least 3 min at locations spaced at equal

height intervals, (0,5 ± 0,1) m in front of the manikin. If it is demonstrated that the air speed does not

vary temporally by more than ± 0,1 m/s, then it is not necessary to monitor air speed during a test.

5.3 Selection and preparation of test garments

It is desirable to independently test three different specimens of the clothing ensemble. However, if only

one specimen is available, it shall be removed from the manikin after each test, dried and conditioned as

specified below before retesting.
The garments tested shall be an appropriate fit to the manikin.

Prior to testing, the garments shall be conditioned either at (34 ± 5) °C and (40 ± 20) % RH or at the test

climate set in the climatic chamber for at least 12 h.
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5.4 Test procedure

The skin surface temperature, T , at each of the manikin's body segments, shall be set and, during the

test period, maintained at (34 ± 0,2) °C.

The air temperature in the climatic chamber, T , shall be (34 ± 0,5) °C. The air temperature, T in the

a a

climatic chamber is the same as the manikin's mean skin temperature, T , so no dry heat exchange is

occurring between the manikin and the environment.
The relative humidity in the climatic chamber shall be (40 ± 5) %.
The air speed v in the climatic chamber shall be set to (0,4 ± 0,1) m/s.

Different relative humidity may be necessary to achieve measurement accuracy in special cases (highly

permeable or highly thermally insulating clothing ensemble).

The manikin’s surface is pre-wetted for example with a spray until it is saturated. The entire manikin

surface shall have sufficient water available for evaporation throughout the test period.

If a water-fed capillary body suit is used for sweat generation, the water added to the sweating surface

shall be heated to (34 ± 0,5) °C before being delivered to the manikin. Sweating rate shall be adjusted in

such a way that it is not too low to prevent the manikin’s surface to dry prematurely during the

measurement or not too high to avoid excess of liquid water to move in the tested clothing ensemble.

Guidelines to select a correct sweating rate are given in Annex A.

The water used is preferably distilled or demineralized as a build-up of electrolyte on the skin shall be

avoided.

The manikin is dressed with the clothing ensemble to be tested, with each garment arranged on the

appropriate part of its body as in practical use.

For the measurement of the total water-vapour resistance, R , the manikin is kept stationary, standing

straight.

For the measurement of the resultant total water vapour resistance, R , the legs and arms of the

etr

manikin are mechanically moved, with the frequency and stride length specified in 5.2.1.1.

After starting the test, allow the system to reach steady-state conditions, i.e. the mean manikin’s skin

surface temperature, T , and the total heating power supplied to the manikin, H , remain constant

s e

within ± 3 %. Record the manikin's skin surface temperatures, T , the air temperature, T , in the climatic

si a

chamber and the power input, H , to the manikin's body segments at least every minute during the

measurement period of at least 10 min.

After testing remove completely the clothing ensemble from the manikin and check for dry skin or wet

clothing ensemble. Retest if necessary with adjusted sweating rate

At least three independent measurements per clothing ensemble shall be conducted.

The water vapour resistance value(s) of the clothing ensemble given in the test report shall be the

arithmetic mean of the single test results.

A measurement of total water vapour resistance R or resultant total water vapour resistance R of

ea ear

the sweating nude manikin using the above procedure is performed at the beginning of each series of

clothing tests.

A reference ensemble shall be tested periodically to check consistency. An example of reference

ensemble is given in Annex B.
5.5 Expression of test results and calculation

The parallel method of calculating the total water-vapour resistance of the tested clothing ensemble

shall be used using Formula (1).
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pp- × A
( )
sa w
R or R = (1)
et,M etr,M
p= f× p
(2)
s i si
f = (3)
H = H (4)
e ei

Water vapour pressure p and p are calculated from T and T with Antoine’s formula using

si a si a
respectively Formulae (5) and (6).
16,6536-4030,183
T +235
pe= 1000 × (5)
16,6536-4030,183
T +235
p = 10 × RH × e
(6)

To calculate the basic water-vapour resistance, R or R , use Formulae (7) and (8).

cl clr
ea,M
R = R - (7)
ecl,M et,M
ear,M
RR= - (8)
eclr,M etr,M

To calculate the effective water-vapour resistance, R or R , use Formula (9) and (10).

cle cler
R = R - R
(9)
ecle,M et,M ea,M
R = R - R
(10)
ecler,M etr,M ear,M

Clothing area factor f can be determined using one of the methods described in Annex C.

If higher accuracy, for example for specific physiological modelling, is required then corrections given in

Annex D may be used.
5.6 Test report
The test report shall include at least the following information.
a) reference to this document;

b) description of the test sample including any other items used to complete the ensemble, washing or

dry cleaning procedures, if applied;
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c) arrangement of the garments on the manikin (e.g. was the shirt-tail tucked in? were there any

zippers, and, if so, were they closed?);

d) number of test specimens per clothing ensemble and number of individual measurements on each

test specimen;

e) air temperature, T , relative humidity, RH, and air speed, v , in the climatic chamber during the

a a
measurement period;

f) arithmetic mean of the clothing ensemble's total water-vapour resistance, R , and/or resultant

et,M
total water-vapour resistance, R ;
etr,M

g) clothing ensemble's basic water-vapour resistance, Recl,M, and/or resultant basic water-vapour

resistance, R , clothing area factor f and the method how it is determined;
eclr,M cl

h) clothing ensemble's effective water-vapour resistance, R , and/or resultant effective water-

ecle,M
vapour resistance, R ;
ecler,M
i) any deviations from this document;
j) date of test.

NOTE 1 By mutual agreement only one of the basic or effective (resultant) water-vapour resistance can be

reported.

NOTE 2 By mutual agreement water vapour resistance of individual manikin segments can be reported.

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Annex A
(informative)
Guidelines to determine sweating rate
A.1 Introduction

This annex applies only to manikin equipped with a sweat generation using a water-fed capillary body

suit and an individual control of sweating rate for each manikin’s segment. For accurate measurements,

the sweating skin needs to be thoroughly wetted, but not dripping. If the sweat flowrate is too low,

regions of the manikin will dry out. This will result in reduced heat loss, thus artificially high R or

et, M

R . If the sweatrate is too high, excess water will saturate the garment, producing an unrealistic test

etr, M
condition and affecting repeatability.

This annex provides guidelines to select an optimal sweating rate. In order to apply correctly those

guidelines, it is assumed that the flow rate of each manikin’s segment is calibrated in such a way that

actual flow rate corresponds to the setup value.
A.2 Guidelines to determine sweating rate
A.2.1 Uncovered zones

For the manikin’s zones which are not covered (for example: the head and the hands or all the zones

−1 −2

during a sweating nude manikin test) a flowrate of 600 g⋅hour ⋅m can be used if the manikin is

−1 −2
standing and a flowrate of 800 g⋅hour ⋅m can be used if the manikin is moving.
A.2.2 Preliminary test method

A preliminary test can be done to determine a first estimation of total water vapour resistance of each

manikin’s segment. The manikin’s skin is pre-wetted for example with a spray until it is completely

saturated. The manikin is dressed with the clothing ensemble to be tested. The test is carried out

following the procedure described in paragraph 5.4 except that sweating generation is switched off.

NOTE For uncovered zones, the values specified in A.2.1 can be used.

As soon as the steady-state is reached and before the manikin’s skin dries out, a first estimation of total

water vapour resistance of each manikin’s segment is determined. Knowing this first estimation, the

evaporation mass flow rate can be calculated from the thermodynamic properties of water. If the

manikin is pre-wetted only, the system will typically stabilize to within 10 % of final water vapour

resistance before the skin layer dries out. Using this preliminary value, a flow setpoint of 10 %–20 %

more than the required fluid volume is suggested. Assuming the standard test conditions (skin surface

temperature = 34 °C, air temperature = 34 °C and relative humidity = 40 %) and a flow rate excess of

15 %, the flow setpoint of each manikin’s segment can be calculated using the following formula:

−1 −
...