ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)

Human Factors (HF); Access to ICT by young people: issues and guidelines

RTR/HF-00301570

General Information

• Status: Not Published
• Technical Committee: HF - Human Factors
• Current Stage: 12 - Citation in the OJ (auto-insert)
• Due Date: 19-Jul-2025
• Completion Date: 18-Jul-2025

Standards Content (Sample)

TECHNICAL REPORT
Human Factors (HF);
Access to ICT by young people: issues and guidelines

2 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)

Reference
RTR/HF-00301570
Keywords
children, cybersecurity, design for all, HF, ICT,
safety, special needs
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ETSI
3 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
Contents
Intellectual Property Rights . 5
Foreword. 5
Modal verbs terminology . 5
Introduction . 6
1 Scope . 7
2 References . 7
2.1 Normative references . 7
2.2 Informative references . 7
3 Definition of terms, symbols and abbreviations . 10
3.1 Terms . 10
3.2 Symbols . 11
3.3 Abbreviations . 11
4 The evolution of children and their ICT user requirements .12
4.0 Introduction . 12
4.1 Key theories of child development . 12
4.2 Key aspects of physical growth, cognitive maturation, perceptual and social development .14
4.2.0 Introduction. 14
4.2.1 0-2 years . 14
4.2.2 2-5 years . 14
4.2.3 5-11 years. 15
4.2.4 11-13 years. 15
4.2.5 13-18 years. 16
5 Children's use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) .17
5.0 Introduction . 17
5.1 Developmental mapping . 17

5.2 Location / Context. 21
5.3 Physical Characteristics . 22
5.4 Operating Characteristics . 23
5.5 Services . 23
5.6 Content . 24
5.6.0 Introduction. 24

5.6.1 Comprehension . 24
5.6.2 Legal and ethical concerns . 25
5.6.3 Marketing and Privacy . 26
5.6.4 Approaches to controlling content . 28
5.7 Applying the approach to a specific target group . 30
6 Market characteristics. 30
7 Legalisation and Regulation . 31
7.1 Introduction . 31
7.2 Legislation . 32
7.2.1 Digital Services Act (DSA) . 32
7.2.2 Artificial Intelligence Act . 32
7.2.3 European Cyber Resilience Act (CRA) . 33
7.3 Regulation . 33
7.3.1 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) . 33
7.3.2 NIS2 Directive . 34
8 Security, Data Protection and Privacy . 34
8.1 Introduction . 34
8.2 Cybersecurity . 34
8.3 Data Protection . 35
8.4 Online Safety . 35
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4 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
8.4.1 Overview . 35
8.4.2 Parental Controls . 35

8.4.3 Report Button. 36
8.4.4 Online Sextortion . 36
8.4.5 Online Sexual Harassment . 37
8.5 Online Privacy . 37
9 Conclusions and Recommendations . 38
9.1 Overview . 38
9.2 Design Issues . 38
9.3 Market Issues . 38
9.4 Health and Safety Concerns . 38
9.5 Security and Privacy Concerns . 39
9.6 User Interface Design Issues . 40
9.7 General Accessibility Issues . 40
9.8 Proactive issues . 41
Annex A: Bibliography . 42
History . 44

ETSI
5 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
Intellectual Property Rights
Essential patents
IPRs essential or potentially essential to normative deliverables may have been declared to ETSI. The declarations
pertaining to these essential IPRs, if any, are publicly available for ETSI members and non-members, and can be
found in ETSI SR 000 314: "Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs); Essential, or potentially Essential, IPRs notified to
ETSI in respect of ETSI standards", which is available from the ETSI Secretariat. Latest updates are available on the
ETSI IPR online database.
Pursuant to the ETSI Directives including the ETSI IPR Policy, no investigation regarding the essentiality of IPRs,
including IPR searches, has been carried out by ETSI. No guarantee can be given as to the existence of other IPRs not
referenced in ETSI SR 000 314 (or the updates on the ETSI Web server) which are, or may be, or may become,
essential to the present document.
Trademarks
The present document may include trademarks and/or tradenames which are asserted and/or registered by their owners.
ETSI claims no ownership of these except for any which are indicated as being the property of ETSI, and conveys no
right to use or reproduce any trademark and/or tradename. Mention of those trademarks in the present document does
not constitute an endorsement by ETSI of products, services or organizations associated with those trademarks.
DECT™, PLUGTESTS™, UMTS™ and the ETSI logo are trademarks of ETSI registered for the benefit of its
Members. 3GPP™, LTE™ and 5G™ logo are trademarks of ETSI registered for the benefit of its Members and of the
3GPP Organizational Partners. oneM2M™ logo is a trademark of ETSI registered for the benefit of its Members and of ®
the oneM2M Partners. GSM and the GSM logo are trademarks registered and owned by the GSM Association.
Foreword
This Technical Report (TR) has been produced by ETSI Technical Committee Human Factors (HF).
Modal verbs terminology
In the present document "should", "should not", "may", "need not", "will", "will not", "can" and "cannot" are to be
interpreted as described in clause 3.2 of the ETSI Drafting Rules (Verbal forms for the expression of provisions).
"must" and "must not" are NOT allowed in ETSI deliverables except when used in direct citation.
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6 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
Introduction
The majority of children in 19 European countries report using their smartphones 'daily' or 'almost all the time' from the
EU Kids Online 2020 survey [i.55]. Among many other findings, the survey shows that the time children now spend
online varies between about two hours per day (Switzerland) and three-and-a-half h ours (Norway). Children are
generally overlooked when considering ICT accessibility requirements. It is assumed that childhood is a temporary
impairment that will vanish as the body and mind mature, and that special attention to the requirements of children is
wasted effort. Accessibility for All thereby becomes Accessibility for Adults. Alternatively, it is assumed that children
are "Masters of Technology" who are far superior to adults and have an inexplicable, innate ability to understand the
inner workings of ICT and put it to constructive use. The present document confronts both of these assumptions,
uncovering various myths associated with children and ICT use, replacing them with empirical findings and specific
concerns recently expressed in public debate. Children (18 years and younger) are becoming an increasingly significant
consumer group for advanced computing and communications services. In some cases, children as young as four or
younger are using ICT products. These products are often embedded in or "disguised" as toys, but far too often they are
designed for the generic user, i.e. adults. Children are expected to use equipment designed for adults that has
inappropriate physical and cognitive ergonomics for their needs. The accessibility requirements for participation in ICT
of this group are not currently clearly identified or catered for, partly because no developmental account of physical,
cognitive, and social maturation that can be readily applied to product design exists. If not adequately considered this
may result in problems such as inability to access services, service abuse, online vulnerability to exploitation, failures in
the growth of relevant cognitive skills and physical damage from prolonged use of systems with inappropriate or
inadequate physical terminal design. Public anxiety and awareness of issues related to exclusion are high. Users are
almost daily confronted with examples of how poorly designed products and services - especially automated services -
exclude and disenfranchise significant proportions of the general population, particularly, but not limited to, the elderly
and people with physical and cognitive impairments. What is often overlooked, however, is that children's daily
encounters with technology encompass much more than smartphones, gaming devices, smart TVs and vending
machines. The home and school are rapidly being transformed - for better or worse - into sites of a globally connected
multimedia culture, integrating a wide variety of audiovisual, information and telecommunications products and
services that children are expected to use. Children increasingly depend on the PC, Internet and smartphones to achieve
their educational goals, be entertained and interact with friends and family. As Sonia Livingstone [i.10] has pointed out,
electronic media are extending their influence throughout children's lives to the extent that children's leisure can no
longer be separated from their education, their employment prospects, or their participation in the civic or private family
arena. Accessibility thus becomes not merely a design objective, but an issue of central importance within the field of
children's rights. The right to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation, and the right to participate
fully in family, cultural and social life as specified in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child [i.7] are all directly
linked to the ICT accessibility issues described in the present document. The link will become increasingly more
important as society and our children become more and more reliant on ICT to fulfil their basic needs. The present
document reviews the human interaction issues for access to Information and Communications Technology (ICT) by
children and guides how these should be dealt with by ETSI. This will include the ethical issues of security for
vulnerable children accessing public communications spaces often in the form of social media and instant messaging
services or apps.
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7 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
1 Scope
The present document reviews the human interaction issues for access to Information and Communications Technology
(ICT) by children and provides guidance on how these should be dealt with by ETSI. This will also include the ethical
and legal issues of security for vulnerable children accessing public communications spaces.
The present document identifies key issues, and potential solutions, and makes recommendations to ETSI for the
specific actions that need to be taken in this area. Where possible this is supported by examples. Relevant issues have
been identified and selected on the basis of consultations with stakeholders and industry representatives, a review of
existing empirical studies and anecdotal accounts of ICT use by children as presented in popular media.
The present document emphasizes opportunities for simple generic solutions that are commercially attractive to network
operators and equipment providers for delivery as a sustainable revenue-generating activity, which opens information
and communications technologies to consumers who might otherwise be excluded.
The present document explores key issues in relation to child development (physical, social and cognitive). Although
the scope of the present document is limited to "normal" child development, the approach described in clause 5 can also
be used to uncover and describe the requirements of u ser groups with special needs, e.g. developmentally impaired or
delayed children. Contextual issues (ethical, legal, sociocultural) of children are highlighted.
The present document reviews current initiatives within and outside Europe promoting ICT usage by children.
The present document presents the various interactions involved in children's use of ICT within a structured framework
consisting of five aspects or parameters of technology use, allowing each aspect to be exposed in a systematic manner.
An example of how this framework can be applied is presented.
Version two of the present document updates and expands ETSI TR 102 133 [i.41] Access to ICT by Young People:
issues and guidelines. This includes extending the age range of the document from under 12 to 18. As at the moment
there is inconsistency between companies and services in how they treat minors. Generally, in law, a minor is someone
under a certain age, usually the age of majority, which demarcates an underage individual from legal adulthood. It
ncorporates relevant legislation and regulations which has been introduced since the TR was originally published, the
design best practices that have emerged since the original publication and update the ones already discussed, as well as
the research that has been done since the original publication.
2 References
2.1 Normative references
Normative references are not applicable in the present document.
2.2 Informative references
References are either specific (identified by date of publication and/or edition number or version number) or
non-specific. For specific references, only the cited version applies. For non-specific references, the latest version of the
referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
NOTE: While any hyperlinks included in this clause were valid at the time of publication ETSI cannot guarantee
their long-term validity.
The following referenced documents may be useful in implementing an ETSI deliverable or add to the reader's
understanding, but are not required for conformance to the present document.
[i.1] ETSI TR 102 125: "Human Factors (HF); Potential harmonized UI elements for mobile terminals
and services".
[i.2] Robert, Thomas S., & John R. Rossiter (1974): "Children and Commercial Persuasion: An
Attribution Theory Analysis", Journal of Consumer Research, 1,1, 13-20.
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8 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
[i.3] Ward, S., Wackman, D.B., and Wartella, E. (1977): "How Children Learn to Buy: The
Development of Consumer Information Processing Skills", Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
[i.4] Turow, J., and Nir, L. (May 2000): "The Internet and the family 2000: The view from parents, the
view from kids", Philadelphia, PA: The Annenberg Public Policy Center.
[i.5] Centre for Excellence in Universal Design: "The 7 Principles".
[i.6] Montgomery, K.C. and Pasnik S. (1996): "Web of deception: Threats to children from online",
Washington, DC: The Center for Media Education.
[i.7] UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
[i.8] Interaction Design Foundation: "Design for All".
[i.9] Gilutz, S. & Nielsen, J. (2002): "Usability of Web-sites for Children: 70 Design Guidelines".
Fremont, CA: Nielsen Norman Group.
[i.10] Livingstone, S. (2002): "Young people and new media; Childhood and the changing media
environment", London: Sage.
[i.11] Independent Expert on Mobile Phones: "Mobile phones and Health".
[i.12] Cell Phone Facts: "Consumer Information on Wireless Phones".
nd
[i.13] Harris, J.R. and Liebert, R.M. (1987): "The Child. Prentice-Hall", Inc., 2 Edition.
[i.14] Freud, S. (1923): "The ego and the id", (translated by Riviere), J., Norton, New York.
[i.15] Locke, J. (1964): "An essay concerning human understanding", Meridian, New York.
[i.16] Darwin, C. (1872): "The expression of the emotions in man and animals", Appleton, London.
[i.17] Montessori, M. (1909/1976): "The discovery of the child", Amareon.
[i.18] Erikson, E. (1963): "Childhood and Society", Norton, New York.
[i.19] Piaget, J. (2001): "The language and thought of the child", (translated by M. Worden), Harcourt,
Brace, New York.
[i.20] Kohlberg, L. (1969): "Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to
socialization". In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research,
Rand McNally, Chicago.
[i.21] Watson, J.B. (1925): "Behaviorism", Norton, New York.
[i.22] Skinner, B.F. (1991): "The behavior of organisms", Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
[i.23] Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969): "The psychology of the child", (translated by H. Weaver), Basic
Books, New York.
[i.24] National Academies Press (US): "The Promise of A dolescence: Realizing Opportunity for All
Youth".
[i.25] Science Direct: "Theory of Mind" 2012.
[i.26] The Guardian: "Kids are on their phones more than ever. We asked parents what they're doing
about it", 2024.
[i.27] Federal Communications Commission: "Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA)", 2024.
[i.28] Guidance Online Safety Act: explainer.
[i.29] European Commission: "The Digital Services Act".
[i.30] European Union Agency For Fundamental Rights: "Handbook on European data protection law";
pages 149 - 150; 2018 edition.
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9 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
[i.31] European Commission: "A European strategy for a better internet for kids (BIK+)", 2022.
[i.32] getsafeonline: "Guide to ISP filters and web blocking".
[i.33] Research.com: "What Age Should a Child Get a Smartphone: Pros and Cons of Early Phone Use
in 2024".
[i.34] Markopoulos, P., Read, J.C. and Giannakos, M. (2021): "Design Of Digital Technologies For
Children. In Handbook Of Human Factors And Ergonomics" (eds G. Salvendy and
W. Karwowski).
[i.35] Regulation (Eu) 2022/2065 Of The European Parliament And Of The Council of 19 October 2022
on a Single Market For Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services
Act).
[i.36] EU AI Act: "How Well Does it Protect Children and Young People?" April 22, 2024.
[i.37] European Commission: "AI Act".
[i.38] European Commission: "Information for Individuals; Can personal data about children be
collected?".
[i.39] Childnet: "Resources for all".
[i.40] ICO: "Protecting children's privacy online: Our Children's code strategy".
[i.41] ETSI TR 102 133: "Human Factors (HF); Access to ICT by young people: issues and guidelines".
[i.42] ETSI TR 104 077-1: "Human Factors (HF); Age Verification Pre-Standardization Study; Part 1:
Stakeholder Requirements".
[i.43] ETSI EG 203 499: "Human Factors (HF); User-centred terminology for existing and upcoming
ICT devices, services and applications".
[i.44] ETSI TR 103 852: "Human Factors (HF); An Examination of Video Game Usability and
Accessibility".
[i.45] ETSI TR 101 550: "Documents relevant to EN 301 549 (V1.1.1) Accessibility requirements
suitable for public procurement of ICT products and services in Europe".
[i.46] ETSI TR 103 349: "Human Factors (HF); Functional needs of people with cognitive disabilities
when using mobile ICT devices for an improved user experience in mobile ICT devices".
[i.47] ETSI EG 203 350: "Human Factors (HF); Guidelines for the design of m obile ICT devices and
their related applications for people with cognitive disabilities".
[i.48] ETSI EN 303 645: "CYBER; Cyber Security for Consumer Internet of Things: Baseline
Requirements".
[i.49] Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the
protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free
movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation).
[i.50] Directive (EU) 2022/2555 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 on
measures for a high common level of cybersecurity across the Union, amending Regulation (EU)
No 910/2014 and Directive (EU) 2018/1972, and repealing Directive (EU) 2016/1148 (NIS 2
Directive).
[i.51] ETSI EG 202 848: "Human Factors (HF); Inclusive eServices for all: Optimizing the accessibility
and the use of upcoming user-interaction technologies".
[i.52] ETSI TR 101 568: "Human Factors (HF); A study of user context dependent multilingual
communications for interactive applications".
[i.53] ISO 9241-210:2019: "Ergonomics of human-system interaction; Part 210: Human-centred design
for interactive systems".
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10 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
[i.54] ETSI EN 301 549 (V3.2.1) (2021-03): "Harmonised European Standard; Accessibility
requirements for ICT products and services".
[i.55] EU Kids Online Survey 2020.
[i.56] Regulation (EU) 2024/2847 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2024 on
horizontal cybersecurity requirements for products with digital elements and amending
Regulations (EU) No 168/2013 and (EU) 2019/1020 and Directive (EU) 2020/1828 (Cyber
Resilience Act).
3 Definition of terms, symbols and abbreviations
3.1 Terms
For the purposes of the present document, the following terms apply:
apprenticeship: model of learning, in which knowledge is acquired in the process of performing
apps: short for application software, which is a type of computer program that performs a specific personal,
educational, and business function and where each application is designed to assist end-users in accomplishing a variety
of tasks, which may be related to productivity, creativity, or communication
banner: coloured, horizontal bar with a title and optional graphic elements displayed on a portal page
browsing: moving from place to place on the Internet searching for topics of interest
chat room: virtual room on the Internet where real-time communication between two or more users takes place via
computer
child development: process that turns infants into adults, including changes in size and shape, in knowledge and
reasoning ability, in physical and social skills, etc.
clickstream: sequence of n avigational data or usage information
comprehension: according to the communication theory, process that involves not only decoding messages, but also
making additional inferences about meaning
cookies: files that log every site visited by the user
edutainment: computerized entertainment comprising both education and entertainment
icon: small picture displayed on the screen that depicts a task that can be invoked by clicking with the mouse
informercialization: integration of advertisements and programmes
internet: global network of computers
microtargeting: designing personalized advertising aimed at individual users
multimedia: combination of media types including text, graphics, animation, audio and video
multi-user domain: cyberspace where users can interact with one another
one-to-one marketing: interactive relationships between seller and purchaser
portal: set of information-content areas, pages, applications, even data from outside sources-brought together in one
central location and accessed through a common interface, called a page
scaffolding: support platform allowing novices to enter a situation sufficiently to learn not only how to reproduce the
activity but also the content that is embedded in the activity
software: series of computer instructions or data that can be stored electronically
spokes characters: fictional cartoons animated characters
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11 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
surfing: see browsing
Worldwide Web (WWW): hyperlinked text- and graphic-based part of the Internet
3.2 Symbols
Void.
3.3 Abbreviations
For the purposes of the present document, the following abbreviations apply:
rd
3GPP 3 Generation Partnership Project
AD Advertisement
AI Artificial Intelligence
ANEC European Association for the Coordination of Consumer Representation in Standardisation
ATM Automatic Teller Machine
BECTA British Educational Communications and Technology Agency
BIK Better Internet for Kids
CD-ROM Compact Disk - Read-Only Memory
CEN European Committee for Standardization
CIPA Children's Internet Protection Act
COPPA Children's Online Privacy Protection Act
CRA Cyber Resilience Act
DPO Data Protection Officer
DSA Digital Services Act
EEA European Economic Area
EG ETSI Guide
EKATO Hellenic Consumer Association of Florina
E-mail Electronic mail (messages exchanged via computer)
EN European Norm
EU European Union
EU/EC European Union/European Commission
FCC Federal Communications Commission
GDPR General Data Protection Regulation
HCI Human-Computer Interaction
HF Human Factors
ICRA Internet Content Rating Association
ICT Information & Communication Technology
ISBN International Standard Book Number
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISP Internet Service Provider
ISSS International Society for the Systems Sciences
MR/AR Mix Reality / Augmented Reality
NIS2 Network and Information Systems directive 2
PAID Purchasing, Accepting, Invoicing, Disbursing
PC Personal Computer
RDF Resource Description Framework
RF Radio Frequency
RF-EMR RadioFrequency ElectroMagnetic Radiation
RSS Really Simple Syndication
SMS Short Message System
TC Technical Committee
TR Technical Report
TV Television
UI User Interface
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
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12 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
US United States
USA United States of America
VLOP Very Large Online Platform
VLOS Very Large Online Search
WWRF Wireless World Research Forum
WWW World Wide Web
4 The evolution of children and their ICT user
requirements
4.0 Introduction
Children, as ICT users, are in most aspects differently abled than adults. Only if their abilities, needs and requirements
are studied, understood and differentiated, can well-working, understandable and accessible ICT solutions be offered.
Our challenge in providing guidance on designing for children is complex, because depending on the definition of
"children", our interfaces may or may not be supportive of their relevant cognitive, social, or physical skills and
capabilities at a certain stage.
Any "Design for all" approach should include the youngest users, if and where they are part of the targeted user group,
differentiating abilities and requirements. This is "design for all" for children can also be relevant for adults with
lifelong physical and/or neurodevelopmental conditions.
4.1 Key theories of child development
An overview of the key theories and characteristics of child development is provided in this clause in three main areas:
• physical growth;
• cognitive maturation; and
• social development is discussed in chronological order.
The focus is on the typical development of the normal child.
Our selection criteria for the approaches and sources considered in the selection process was guided by balance, trying
to include several major ideas bearing on important topics and agreement, conveying important facts and ideas on
which researchers seem to have agreed, forming a sort of generic, common knowledge base.
Human development is the process that turns babies into children, children into adolescents, adolescents into young
Adults and young adults into, into mature adults then old people. Nature is in no hurry at all human infants are more
dependent on other's care than are the young of any other species. also, childhood spans far longer, allowing for step-
by-step physical and mental development. for the present work, it focuses on child development from birth to
adolescence.
Once a child is born, the environment expands tremendously. the most important basic aspect, the family, is only the
beginning. the environment includes many other factors, affecting a child's development, such as cultural differences,
the socio-economic level and heredity. The interaction between heredity and environment and their importance in
shaping a child's intelligence, personality and sociability has been studied intensely. scientists agree that children are
shaped by their heredity and environment, but it is not agreed or clear how much is inherited and how much results
from environmental influences.
Child development can be studied in different ways:
• Descriptive studies based on representative samples, allowing for conclusions about the mean and variability.
• Correlational studies are designed to investigate existing relationships between two or more sets of related
data.
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13 ETSI TR 102 133 V2.1.1 (2025-07)
• Experimental methods, concluding upon the significance of di fferences from data collected in experiments.
As there are a large number of theories and approaches describing child development, the present document has applied
the selection criteria of balance and agreement, trying to include most major ideas on important topics, conveying
important facts and ideas on which researchers have agreed.
Research of child development began in the late 1880s, when G. Stanley Hall tried to understand how children's beliefs
changed and their knowledge increased, as they grew older [i.13]. Some 20 years later, Alfred Binet tested
schoolchildren in Paris, in order to identify those who required more assistance. at about the same time, Sigmund Freud
began to develop his theories on the human mind and personality [i.14].
Until the last century, childhood was not viewed as a special time of life: children were seen simply as miniature adults,
assuming babies were born with their minds already "pre-programmed" with certain content. This was later denied by
John Locke believing in an empty baby mind, a "tabula rasa" [i.15], until filled and shaped by thought knowledge and
the environment.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's theory [i.13] was based on that children are capable individuals to be left alone in order to
develop naturally. Charles Darwin, assuming even humans are animals [i.16], subject to the same "laws of nature" that
control an animal's responses, believed in instincts - inherited patterns of behaviour.
Maria Montessori, in the early 1900s, stressed in her pedagogical methodology the need for training of the senses with
unrestricted liberty [i.17], also introducing a new methodology of teaching children to write.
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, argued that problems of s exual origin acquired during childhood
experiences account for most adult psychological problems. Dividing the human mind into the id, the ego and the
superego, he offered the first real-stage theory of development. Stage theories are characterized by stages coming in a
certain order but at various speeds. Also, what goes on in the stages is discrete and qualitatively different from what
goes on in other stages. Freud's five development stages [i.14] are the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages.
Erik Eriksson developed a more complex psychosocial stage theory [i.18], covering all phases of a human's life. The
emphasis is on social interaction, less on sexual matters. The stages relevant to child development are trust versus
mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, ego growth, and industry versus inferiority followed
by the identity crisis in adolescence. The last three stages, occurring in adulthood, are not relevant to this work.
Jean Piaget was interested in cognitive development, the growth of knowledge and understanding [i.19], [i.23]. In his
view, children actively seek information, achieving knowledge through their efforts, as a result of the highest possible
level of biological adaptation. Their built-in driver is one of the main characteristics of a human being.
Lawrence Kohlberg, focusing on the development of moral reasoning [i.20], defined three stages: on the pre-
conventional level, moral reasoning is only about the possibility of success and failure, defined as "getting caught".
Conventional reasoning is based upon society's rules, while post-conventional reasoning considers personal principles
to be more important than upholding society's conventions and rules, a level most people never reach.
Behaviourists like J.B. Watson [i.21] and B.F. Skinner [i.22], focusing on the child's practical response and not thoughts
or feelings, believed in conditional fear, classical and operand conditioning shaping our behaviour.
Adolescence is a period of significant development that begins with the onset of puberty and ends in the mid-20s.
Consider how different a person is at the age of 12 from the person he, she or they are at age 24. The trajectory between
those two ages involves a profound amount of change in all domains of development - biological, cognitive,
psychosocial, and emo
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