iTeh StandardsiTeh Standards
EURUSD
Your shopping cart is empty.
ASTM

ASTM E822-92(2009)

(Practice)

Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact With Propelled Ice Balls

Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact With Propelled Ice Balls

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
In many geographic areas there is concern about the effect of falling hail upon solar collector covers. This practice may be used to determine the ability of flat-plate solar collector covers to withstand the impact forces of hailstones. In this practice, the ability of a solar collector cover plate to withstand hail impact is related to its tested ability to withstand impact from ice balls. The effects of the impact on the material are highly variable and dependent upon the material.
This practice describes a standard procedure for mounting the test specimen, conducting the impact test, and reporting the effects.
The procedures for mounting cover plate materials and collectors are provided to ensure that they are tested in a configuration that relates to their use in a solar collector.
The corner locations of the four impacts are chosen to represent vulnerable sites on the cover plate. Impacts near corner supports are more critical than impacts elsewhere. Only a single impact is specified at each of the impact locations. For test control purposes, multiple impacts in a single location are not permitted because a subcritical impact may still cause damage that would alter the response to subsequent impacts.
Resultant velocity is used to simulate the velocity that may be reached by hail accompanied by wind. The resultant velocity used in this practice is determined by vector addition of a 20 m/s (45 mph) horizontal velocity to the vertical terminal velocity.
Ice balls are used in this practice to simulate hailstones because natural hailstones are not readily available to use, and ice balls closely approximate hailstones. However, no direct relationship has been established between the effect of impact of ice balls and hailstones. Hailstones are highly variable in properties such as shape, density, and frangibility. These properties affect factors such as the kinetic energy delivered to the cover plate, the period during which energy is delivered, and the are...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers a procedure for determining the ability of cover plates for flat-plate solar collectors to withstand impact forces of falling hail. Propelled ice balls are used to simulate falling hailstones. This practice is not intended to apply to photovoltaic cells or arrays.
1.2 This practice defines two types of test specimens, describes methods for mounting specimens, specifies impact locations on each test specimen, provides an equation for determining the velocity of any size ice ball, provides a method for impacting the test specimens with ice balls, and specifies parameters that must be recorded and reported.
1.3 This practice does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable levels of ice-ball impact resistance is beyond the scope of this practice.
1.4 The size of ice ball to be used in conducting this test is not specified in this practice. This practice can be used with various sizes of ice balls.
1.5 The categories of solar collector cover plate materials to which this practice may be applied cover the range of:
1.5.1 Brittle sheet, such as glass,
1.5.2 Semirigid sheet, such as plastic, and
1.5.3 Flexible membrane, such as plastic film.
1.6 Solar collector cover materials should be tested as:
1.6.1 Part of an assembled collector (Type 1 specimen), or
1.6.2 Mounted on a separate test frame cover plate holder (Type 2 specimen).
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

General Information

Status
Historical
Publication Date
31-Mar-2009
ICS
27.160 - Solar energy engineering
Technical Committee
E44 - Solar, Geothermal and Other Alternative Energy Sources
Current Stage
Ref Project

Relations

Replaces
ASTM E822-92(2003) - Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact With Propelled Ice Balls
Effective Date
01-Apr-2009
Referred By
ASTM E1038-10(2019) - Standard Test Method for Determining Resistance of Photovoltaic Modules to Hail by Impact with Propelled Ice Balls
Effective Date
01-Apr-2009

Buy Standard

ASTM E822-92(2009) - Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact With Propelled Ice BallsASTM E822-92(2009) - Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact With Propelled Ice Balls
PreviousNext
Standard
ASTM E822-92(2009) - Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact With Propelled Ice Balls
English language
5 pages
sale 15% off
Preview
sale 15% off
Preview

Standards Content (Sample)


NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation: E822 − 92(Reapproved 2009)
Standard Practice for
Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by
Impact With Propelled Ice Balls
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E822; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision.Anumber in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.
1. Scope responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
1.1 This practice covers a procedure for determining the
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
abilityofcoverplatesforflat-platesolarcollectorstowithstand
impact forces of falling hail. Propelled ice balls are used to
2. Significance and Use
simulate falling hailstones. This practice is not intended to
2.1 In many geographic areas there is concern about the
apply to photovoltaic cells or arrays.
effect of falling hail upon solar collector covers. This practice
1.2 This practice defines two types of test specimens,
maybeusedtodeterminetheabilityofflat-platesolarcollector
describes methods for mounting specimens, specifies impact
covers to withstand the impact forces of hailstones. In this
locations on each test specimen, provides an equation for
practice,theabilityofasolarcollectorcoverplatetowithstand
determiningthevelocityofanysizeiceball,providesamethod
hail impact is related to its tested ability to withstand impact
for impacting the test specimens with ice balls, and specifies
from ice balls. The effects of the impact on the material are
parameters that must be recorded and reported.
highly variable and dependent upon the material.
1.3 This practice does not establish pass or fail levels. The
2.2 This practice describes a standard procedure for mount-
determination of acceptable or unacceptable levels of ice-ball
ingthetestspecimen,conductingtheimpacttest,andreporting
impact resistance is beyond the scope of this practice.
the effects.
1.4 The size of ice ball to be used in conducting this test is 2.2.1 The procedures for mounting cover plate materials
not specified in this practice. This practice can be used with and collectors are provided to ensure that they are tested in a
various sizes of ice balls. configuration that relates to their use in a solar collector.
2.2.2 The corner locations of the four impacts are chosen to
1.5 Thecategoriesofsolarcollectorcoverplatematerialsto
represent vulnerable sites on the cover plate. Impacts near
which this practice may be applied cover the range of:
corner supports are more critical than impacts elsewhere. Only
1.5.1 Brittle sheet, such as glass,
asingleimpactisspecifiedateachoftheimpactlocations.For
1.5.2 Semirigid sheet, such as plastic, and
test control purposes, multiple impacts in a single location are
1.5.3 Flexible membrane, such as plastic film.
not permitted because a subcritical impact may still cause
1.6 Solar collector cover materials should be tested as:
damage that would alter the response to subsequent impacts.
1.6.1 Part of an assembled collector (Type 1 specimen), or
2.2.3 Resultant velocity is used to simulate the velocity that
1.6.2 Mounted on a separate test frame cover plate holder
may be reached by hail accompanied by wind. The resultant
(Type 2 specimen).
velocity used in this practice is determined by vector addition
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the ofa20m/s(45mph)horizontalvelocitytotheverticalterminal
standard. The values given in parentheses are for information velocity.
2.2.4 Iceballsareusedinthispracticetosimulatehailstones
only.
because natural hailstones are not readily available to use, and
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the
ice balls closely approximate hailstones. However, no direct
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
relationship has been established between the effect of impact
of ice balls and hailstones. Hailstones are highly variable in
properties such as shape, density, and frangibility. These
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E44 on Solar,
properties affect factors such as the kinetic energy delivered to
GeothermalandOtherAlternativeEnergySourcesandisthedirectresponsibilityof
Subcommittee E44.05 on Solar Heating and Cooling Systems and Materials.
Current edition approved April 1, 2009. Published June 2009. Originally
approved in 1981. Last previous edition approved in 2003 as E822–92(2003). DOI: Gokhale, N. R., Hailstorms and Hailstone Growth, State University of New
10.1520/E0822-92R09. York Press, Albany, NY, 1975.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E822 − 92 (2009)
the cover plate, the period during which energy is delivered,
and the area over which the energy is distributed. Ice balls,
withadensity,frangibility,andterminalvelocityneartherange
ofhailstones,arethenearesthailstoneapproximationknownat
this time. Perhaps the major difference between ice balls and
hailstones is that hailstones are much more variable than ice
balls. However, ice balls can be uniformly and repeatedly
manufactured to ensure a projectile with known properties.
2.2.5 A wide range of observable effects may be produced
by impacting the various types of cover plate materials. The
effects may vary from no effect to total destruction. Some
changes in the cover material may be visible when there is no
apparent functional impairment of the cover plate material.All
effectsofeachimpactmustbedescribedinthereportsothatan
FIG. 1 Frame Dimensions and Location of Test Impact Points
estimate of their significance can be made.
2.3 Data generated using this practice may be used: (1)to
evaluate impact resistance of a single material or collector, (2)
3.2 Velocity Meter, for measuring the ice ball velocity with
to compare the impact resistance of several materials or
an accuracy of 62.0%.
collectors,(3)toprovideacommonbasisforselectionofcover
3.3 Test Base—A structurally rigid support for mounting a
materials or collectors for use in various geographic areas, or
complete solar collector panel (Type 1 specimen), or for
(4) to evaluate changes in impact resistance due to environ-
mounting a solar collector cover plate material (Type 2
mental factors such as weather.
specimen) set in the cover holder.
2.4 Thispracticedoesnotstatethesize(s)oficeball(s)tobe
3.4 CoverHolder—Arigidedgingframe(seeFig.1andFig.
usedinmakingtheimpact.Eitherthepersonrequestingthetest
2) designed to hold an approximately 860 by 1930-mm (34 by
or the person performing the test must determine ice ball size
76-in.) cover plate.
to be used in the testing. Choice of ice ball size may relate to
NOTE 2—Hardwood, such as oak, birch, maple, or hickory, is manda-
the intent of the testing.
tory if wood is used for the cover holder.
2.4.1 If the testing is being performed to evaluate impact
NOTE 3—Corner straps, as shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, have been found
resistance of a single material or collector, or several materials
useful to ensure the cover holder is rigid.
orcollectors,itmaybedesirabletorepeatthetestusingseveral
3.5 Molds, for casting spherical crack-free ice balls of
sizesoficeballs.Inthis manner the different effectsofvarious
appropriate diameter.
sizes of ice balls may be determined.
2.4.2 The size and frequency of hail varies significantly
NOTE 4—Molds made from room-temperature vulcanizing rubber and
expanded polystyrene have been found suitable.
among various geographic areas. If testing is being performed
toevaluatematerialsorcollectorsintendedforuseinaspecific
3.6 Freezer—Adevice controlled at−12 6 5°C (106 9°F)
geographicarea,theiceballsizeshouldcorrespondtothelevel
for making and storing ice balls.
of hail impact resistance required for that area. Information on
hail size and frequency may be available from local historical 4. Test Specimen
weather records or may be determined from the publications
4.1 Type 1—The test specimen shall consist of a complete
listed in Appendix X1.
glazing assembly or a complete solar collector panel with
2.5 The hail impact resistance of materials may change as
necessary mounting brackets or fixtures.
the materials are exposed to various environmental factors.
4.2 Type 2—The test specimen shall consist of a section of
This practice may be used to generate data to evaluate
solar collector cover plate material mounted in the cover
degradation by comparison of hail impact resistance data
holder.
measured before and after exposure to such aging.
3. Apparatus
3.1 Launcher—A mechanism capable of propelling a se-
lected ice ball at the corresponding resultant velocity. The
aimingaccuracyofthelaunchermustbesufficienttopropelthe
ice ball to strike the cover plate within 25 mm (61 in.) ofthe
specified impact points. See Fig. 1.
NOTE 1—A launcher that has proven suitable uses a compressed air
supply, an accumulator tank, a large-diameter quick-opening valve and
interchangeable barrels to accommodate the sizes of ice balls to be used.
Barrels should be made from materials with low thermal conductivity to
reducemeltingoftheiceball.Barrelsshouldbesizedsuchthattheiceball
remains intact during loading and launching. FIG. 2 Cover Holder, Empty (Section A-A of Fig. 1)
E822 − 92 (2009)
fixtures,orboth.Donotobstructthespecifiedimpactpointsby
the mounting fixtures.
5.2 Type 2—Securethetestspecimeninthecoverholder,as
shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 5, and mount the cover holder (with
the cover), on a suitable test base. Provide sufficient clearance
on the side opposite the impact surface to permit unobstructed
deflection of the cover material.
5.2.1 Lay brittle sheet cover materials, approximately 860
by 1930 mm (34 by 76 in.), on the elastomeric gasket (TypeA
durometer rating 30 to 50) of one member of the cover holder.
Put the shim in place. Lay the other member of the cover
NOTE1—Slotcornerasindicatedtofitsteelcornerstraps.Strapsshould
holder on top. Tighten the bolts or C-clamp screws until the
be flush with surface.
elastomericgasketsarecompressedandtheshimisfirmlyheld,
FIG. 3 Slots for Corner Straps of Cover Holder
asshowninFig.5.(Note5).Mountthespecimenfirmlyonthe
test base for testing.
NOTE 5—If the cover plate material will be damaged by the procedure
specified herein, the bolts or C-clamp screws should be tightened
sufficiently to hold the specimen in the frame, but not tightened to the
extent that permanent deformations are made in the cover plate material.
5.2.2 Clamp semirigid sheet (plastic) cover materials in the
cover holder in the same manner as brittle sheet cover
materials.
5.2.3 Flexible Membrane:
5.2.3.1 Mountthematerialinaccordancewiththemanufac-
turer’s recommendations on a suitable rigid subfram
...

Questions, Comments and Discussion

Ask us and Technical Secretary will try to provide an answer. You can facilitate discussion about the standard in here.

This May Also Interest You

ASTM
ASTM E1802-12(2023)(Test Method)
Standard Test Methods for Wet Insulation Integrity Testing of Photovoltaic Modules

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of hazard should the user come into contact with the electrical potential of the module or system. In addition, the insulation system provides a barrier to electrochemical corrosion, and insulation flaws can result in increased corrosion and reliability problems. These test methods describe procedures for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate electrical isolation through normal installation and use. At no location on the module should the PV-generated electrical potential be accessible, with the obvious exception of the output leads. This isolation is necessary to provide for safe and reliable installation, use, and service of the photovoltaic system.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from electrical hazards. Its primary use is to find insulation flaws that could be dangerous to persons who may come into contact with the module, especially when modules are wet. For example, these flaws could be small holes in the encapsulation that allow hazardous voltages to be accessible on the outside surface of a module after a period of high humidity.  
4.3 Insulation flaws in a module may only become detectable after the module has been wet for a certain period of time. For this reason, these procedures specify a minimum time a module must be immersed prior to the insulation integrity measurements.  
4.4 Electrical junction boxes attached to modules are often designed to allow liquid water, accumulated from condensed water vapor, to drain. Such drain paths are usually designed to permit water to exit, but not to allow impinging water from rain or water sprinklers to enter. It is important that all surfaces of junction boxes be thoroughly wetted by spraying during the tests to enable t...
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods provide procedures to determine the insulation resistance of a photovoltaic (PV) module, i.e. the electrical resistance between the module's internal electrical components and its exposed, electrically conductive, non-current carrying parts and surfaces.  
1.2 The insulation integrity procedures are a combination of wet insulation resistance and wet dielectric voltage withstand test procedures.  
1.3 These procedures are similar to and reference the insulation integrity test procedures described in Test Methods E1462, with the difference being that the photovoltaic module under test is immersed in a wetting solution during the procedures.  
1.4 These test methods do not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of these test methods.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific precautionary statements, see Section 6.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    3 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E2939-13(2023)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Determining Reporting Conditions and Expected Capacity for Photovoltaic Non-Concentrator Systems

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice can be used to determine an expected capacity for an existing or a proposed photovoltaic system in a particular location during a specified period of time (see data collection period in Test Method E2848).  
5.2 The expected capacity calculated in accordance with this practice can be compared with the capacity measured according to Test Method E2848 when the RC are the same.  
5.3 The comparison of expected capacity and measured capacity can be used as a criterion for plant acceptance.  
5.4 The user of this practice must select the performance simulation period over which the reporting conditions and expected capacity will be derived. Seasonal variations will likely cause both of these to change with differing performance simulation periods.  
5.5 When this practice is used in conjunction with Test Method E2848, the performance simulation period and the data collection period must agree. If they do not agree, the comparison between expected and measured capacity will not be meaningful.  
5.6 Historical or measured5 plane-of-array irradiance, ambient air temperature, and wind speed data can be used to select reporting conditions and calculate expected capacity. If historical data are used, the data collection period should match the time period of the measured data in terms of season and length.  
5.7 The simulated power output that is used to calculate the expected capacity should be derived from a performance model designed to represent the photovoltaic system which will be reported per Test Method E2848.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice provides procedures for determining the expected capacity of a specific photovoltaic system in a specific geographical location that is in operation under natural sunlight during a specified period of time. The expected capacity is intended for comparison with the measured capacity determined by Test Method E2848.  
1.2 This practice is intended for use with Test Method E2848 as a procedure to select appropriate reporting conditions (RC), including solar irradiance in the plane of the modules, ambient temperature, and wind speed needed for the photovoltaic system capacity measurement.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    4 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E1799-12(2023)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Visual Inspections of Photovoltaic Modules

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Environmental stress tests, such as those listed in 1.2, are normally used to evaluate module designs prior to production or purchase. These test methods rely on performing electrical tests and visual inspections of modules before and after stress testing to determine the effects of the exposures.  
4.2 Effects of environmental stress testing may vary from no effects to significant changes. Some physical changes in the module may be visible when there are no measurable electrical changes. Similarly, electrical changes in the module may occur with no visible changes.  
4.3 It is the intent of this practice to provide a recognized procedure for performing visual inspections and to specify effects that should be reported.  
4.4 Many of these effects are subjective. In order to determine if a module has passed a visual inspection, the user of this practice must specify what changes or conditions are acceptable. The user may have to judge whether changes noted during an inspection will limit the useful life of a module design.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers procedures and criteria for visual inspections of photovoltaic modules.  
1.2 Visual inspections of photovoltaic modules are normally performed before and after modules have been subjected to environmental, electrical, or mechanical stress testing, such as thermal cycling, humidity-freeze cycling, damp heat exposure, ultraviolet exposure, mechanical loading, hail impact testing, outdoor exposure, or other stress testing that may be part of the photovoltaic module testing sequence.  
1.3 This practice does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    2 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E2848-13(2023)(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Reporting Photovoltaic Non-Concentrator System Performance

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Because there are a number of choices in this test method that depend on different applications and system configurations, it is the responsibility of the user of this test method to specify the details and protocol of an individual system power measurement prior to the beginning of a measurement.  
5.2 Unlike device-level measurements that report performance at a fixed device temperature of 25 °C, such as Test Methods E1036, this test method uses regression to a reference ambient air temperature.  
5.2.1 System power values calculated using this test method are therefore much more indicative of the power a system actually produces compared with reporting performance at a relatively cold device temperature such as 25 °C.  
5.2.2 Using ambient temperature reduces the complexity of the data acquisition and analysis by avoiding the issues associated with defining and measuring the device temperature of an entire photovoltaic system.  
5.2.3 The user of this test method must select the time period over which system data are collected, and the averaging interval for the data collection within the constraints of 8.3.  
5.2.4 It is assumed that the system performance does not degrade or change during the data collection time period. This assumption influences the selection of the data collection period because system performance can have seasonal variations.  
5.3 The irradiance shall be measured in the plane of the modules under test. If multiple planes exist (particularly in the case of rolling terrain), then the plane or planes in which irradiance measurement will occur must be reported with the test results. In the case where this test method is to be used for acceptance testing of a photovoltaic system or reporting of photovoltaic system performance for contractual purposes, the plane or planes in which irradiance measurement will occur must be agreed upon by the parties to the test prior to the start of the test.
Note 1: In general, the irradiance measur...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method provides measurement and analysis procedures for determining the capacity of a specific photovoltaic system built in a particular place and in operation under natural sunlight.  
1.2 This test method is used for the following purposes:  
1.2.1 Acceptance testing of newly installed photovoltaic systems,  
1.2.2 Reporting of dc or ac system performance, and  
1.2.3 Monitoring of photovoltaic system performance.  
1.3 This test method should not be used for:  
1.3.1 Testing of individual photovoltaic modules for comparison to nameplate power ratings,  
1.3.2 Testing of individual photovoltaic modules or systems for comparison to other photovoltaic modules or systems, and  
1.3.3 Testing of photovoltaic systems for the purpose of comparing the performance of photovoltaic systems located in different places.  
1.4 In this test method, photovoltaic system power is reported with respect to a set of reporting conditions (RC) including solar irradiance in the plane of the modules, ambient temperature, and wind speed (see Section 6). Measurements under a variety of reporting conditions are allowed to facilitate testing and comparison of results.  
1.5 This test method assumes that the solar cell temperature is directly influenced by ambient temperature and wind speed; if not the regression results may be less meaningful.  
1.6 The capacity measured according to this test method should not be used to make representations about the energy generation capabilities of the system.  
1.7 This test method is not applicable to concentrator photovoltaic systems; as an alternative, Test Method E2527 should be considered for such systems.  
1.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user...

  • Standard
    11 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E2908-12(2023)(Guide)
Standard Guide for Fire Prevention for Photovoltaic Panels, Modules, and Systems

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Photovoltaic modules are electrical dc sources. dc sources have unique considerations with regards to arc formation and interruption, as once formed, the arc is not automatically interrupted by an alternating current. Solar modules are energized whenever modules in the string are illuminated by sunlight, or during fault conditions.  
5.2 With the rapid increase in the number of photovoltaic system installations, this guide attempts to increase awareness of methods to reduce the risk of fire from photovoltaic systems.  
5.3 This guide is intended for use by module manufacturers, panel assemblers, system designers, installers, and specifiers.  
5.4 This guide may be used to specify minimum requirements. It is not intended to capture all conditions or scenarios which could result in a fire.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide describes basic principles of photovoltaic module design, panel assembly, and system installation to reduce the risk of fire originating from the photovoltaic source circuit.  
1.2 This guide is not intended to cover all scenarios which could lead to fire. It is intended to provide an assembly of generally accepted practices.  
1.3 This guide is intended for systems which contain photovoltaic modules and panels as dc source circuits, although the recommended practices may also apply to systems utilizing ac modules.  
1.4 This guide does not cover fire suppression in the event of a fire involving a photovoltaic module or system.  
1.5 This guide does not cover fire emanating from other sources.  
1.6 This guide does not cover mechanical, structural, electrical, or other considerations key to photovoltaic module and system design and installation.  
1.7 This guide does not cover disposal of modules damaged by a fire, or other material hazards related to such modules.  
1.8 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.10 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Guide
    5 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E2481-12(2023)(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Hot Spot Protection Testing of Photovoltaic Modules

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of partial shadowing of the module(s) during operation. This test method describes a procedure for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate protection against the potential harmful effects of hot spots during normal installation and use.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from internal defects which could cause loss of electrical insulation or combustion hazards.  
4.3 Hot spot heating occurs in a module when its operating current exceeds the reduced short-circuit current (ISC) of a shadowed or faulty cell or group of cells. When such a condition occurs, the affected cell or group of cells is forced into reverse bias and must dissipate power, which can cause overheating.
Note 1: The correct use of bypass diodes can prevent hot spot damage from occurring.  
4.4 Fig. 1 illustrates the hot spot effect in a module of a series string of cells, one of which, cell Y, is partially shadowed. The amount of electrical power dissipated in Y is equal to the product of the module current and the reverse voltage developed across Y. For any irradiance level, when the reverse voltage across Y is equal to the voltage generated by the remaining (s-1) cells in the module, power dissipation is at a maximum when the module is short-circuited. This is shown in Fig. 1 by the shaded rectangle constructed at the intersection of the reverse I-V characteristic of Y with the image of the forward I-V characteristic of the (s-1) cells.
FIG. 1 Hot Spot Effect  
4.5 Bypass diodes, if present, as shown in Fig. 2, begin conducting when a series-connected string in a module is in reverse bias, thereby limiting the power dissipation in the reduced-output cell.  
FIG. 2 Bypass Diode Effect  
Note 2: If the ...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method provides a procedure to determine the ability of a photovoltaic (PV) module to endure the long-term effects of periodic “hot spot” heating associated with common fault conditions such as severely cracked or mismatched cells, single-point open circuit failures (for example, interconnect failures), partial (or nonuniform) shadowing, or soiling. Such effects typically include solder melting or deterioration of the encapsulation, but in severe cases could progress to combustion of the PV module and surrounding materials.  
1.2 There are two ways that cells can cause a hot spot problem: either by having a high resistance so that there is a large resistance in the circuit, or by having a low resistance area (shunt) such that there is a high current flow in a localized region. This test method selects cells of both types to be stressed.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    5 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E781-86(2023)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Evaluating Absorptive Solar Receiver Materials When Exposed to Conditions Simulating Stagnation in Solar Collectors with Cover Plates

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Although this practice is intended for evaluating solar absorber materials and coatings used in flat-plate collectors, no single procedure can duplicate the wide range of temperatures and environmental conditions to which these materials may be exposed during in-service conditions.  
4.2 This practice is intended as a screening test for absorber materials and coatings. All conditions are chosen to be representative of those encountered in solar collectors with single cover plates and with no added means of limiting the temperature during stagnation conditions.  
4.3 This practice uses exposure in a simulated collector with a single cover plate. Although collectors with additional cover plates will produce higher temperatures at stagnation, this procedure is considered to provide adequate thermal testing for most applications.
Note 1: Mathematical modeling has shown that a selective absorber, single glazed flat-plate solar collector can attain absorber plate stagnation temperatures as high as 226 °C (437 °F) with an ambient temperature of 37.8 °C (100 °F) and zero wind velocity, and a double glazed one as high as 245 °C (482 °F) under these conditions. The same configuration solar collector with a nonselective absorber can attain absorber stagnation temperatures as high as 146 °C (284 °F) if single glazed, and 185 °C (360 °F) if double glazed, with the same environmental conditions (see “Performance Criteria for Solar Heating and Cooling Systems in Commercial Buildings,” NBS Technical Note 1187).4  
4.4 This practice evaluates the thermal stability of absorber materials. It does not evaluate the moisture stability of absorber materials used in actual solar collectors exposed outdoors. Moisture intrusion into solar collectors is a frequent occurrence in addition to condensation caused by diurnal breathing.  
4.5 This practice differentiates between the testing of spectrally selective absorbers and nonselective absorbers.  
4.5.1 Testing Spectrally Selective...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers a test procedure for evaluating absorptive solar receiver materials and coatings when exposed to sunlight under cover plate(s) for long durations. This practice is intended to evaluate the exposure resistance of absorber materials and coatings used in flat-plate collectors where maximum non-operational stagnation temperatures will be approximately 200 °C (392 °F).  
1.2 This practice shall not apply to receiver materials used in solar collectors without covers (unglazed) or in evacuated collectors, that is, those that use a vacuum to suppress convective and conductive thermal losses.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    5 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E822-92(2023)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Determining Resistance of Solar Collector Covers to Hail by Impact with Propelled Ice Balls

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
2.1 In many geographic areas there is concern about the effect of falling hail upon solar collector covers. This practice may be used to determine the ability of flat-plate solar collector covers to withstand the impact forces of hailstones. In this practice, the ability of a solar collector cover plate to withstand hail impact is related to its tested ability to withstand impact from ice balls. The effects of the impact on the material are highly variable and dependent upon the material.  
2.2 This practice describes a standard procedure for mounting the test specimen, conducting the impact test, and reporting the effects.  
2.2.1 The procedures for mounting cover plate materials and collectors are provided to ensure that they are tested in a configuration that relates to their use in a solar collector.  
2.2.2 The corner locations of the four impacts are chosen to represent vulnerable sites on the cover plate. Impacts near corner supports are more critical than impacts elsewhere. Only a single impact is specified at each of the impact locations. For test control purposes, multiple impacts in a single location are not permitted because a subcritical impact may still cause damage that would alter the response to subsequent impacts.  
2.2.3 Resultant velocity is used to simulate the velocity that may be reached by hail accompanied by wind. The resultant velocity used in this practice is determined by vector addition of a 20 m/s (45 mph) horizontal velocity to the vertical terminal velocity.  
2.2.4 Ice balls are used in this practice to simulate hailstones because natural hailstones are not readily available to use, and ice balls closely approximate hailstones. However, no direct relationship has been established between the effect of impact of ice balls and hailstones. Hailstones are highly variable in properties such as shape, density, and frangibility.2 These properties affect factors such as the kinetic energy delivered to the cover plate, the period during ...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers a procedure for determining the ability of cover plates for flat-plate solar collectors to withstand impact forces of falling hail. Propelled ice balls are used to simulate falling hailstones. This practice is not intended to apply to photovoltaic cells or arrays.  
1.2 This practice defines two types of test specimens, describes methods for mounting specimens, specifies impact locations on each test specimen, provides an equation for determining the velocity of any size ice ball, provides a method for impacting the test specimens with ice balls, and specifies parameters that must be recorded and reported.  
1.3 This practice does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable levels of ice-ball impact resistance is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.4 The size of ice ball to be used in conducting this test is not specified in this practice. This practice can be used with various sizes of ice balls.  
1.5 The categories of solar collector cover plate materials to which this practice may be applied cover the range of:  
1.5.1 Brittle sheet, such as glass,  
1.5.2 Semirigid sheet, such as plastic, and  
1.5.3 Flexible membrane, such as plastic film.  
1.6 Solar collector cover materials should be tested as:  
1.6.1 Part of an assembled collector (Type 1 specimen), or  
1.6.2 Mounted on a separate test frame cover plate holder (Type 2 specimen).  
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internatio...

  • Standard
    5 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E881-92(2022)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Exposure of Solar Collector Cover Materials to Natural Weathering Under Conditions Simulating Stagnation Mode

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This practice describes a weathering box test fixture and establishes limits for the heat loss coefficients. Uniform exposure guidelines are provided to minimize the variables encountered during outdoor exposure testing.  
4.2 Since the combination of elevated temperature and solar radiation may cause some solar collector cover materials to degrade more rapidly than either exposure alone, a weathering box that elevates the temperature of the cover materials is used.  
4.3 This practice may be used to assist in the evaluation of solar collector cover materials in the stagnation mode. No single temperature or procedure can duplicate the range of temperatures and environmental conditions to which cover materials may be exposed during stagnation conditions. To assist in evaluation of solar collector cover materials in the operational mode, Practice E782 should be used. Insufficient data exist to obtain exact correlation between the behavior of materials exposed in accordance with this practice and actual in-service performance.  
4.4 This practice may also be useful in comparing the performance of different materials at one site or the performance of the same material at different sites, or both.  
4.5 Means of evaluating the effects of weathering are provided in Practice E765, and in other ASTM test methods that evaluate material properties.  
4.6 Exposures of the type described in this practice may be used to evaluate the stability of solar collector cover materials when exposed outdoors to the varied influences that comprise weather. Exposure conditions are complex and changeable. Important factors are material temperature, climate, time of year, presence of industrial pollution, etc. Generally, because it is difficult to define or measure precisely the factors influencing degradation due to weathering, results of outdoor exposure tests must be taken as indicative only. Repeated exposure testing at different seasons over a period of more than one year is req...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers a procedure for the exposure of solar collector cover materials to the natural weather environment at elevated temperatures that approximate stagnation conditions in solar collectors having a combined back and edge loss coefficient of less than 1.5 W/(m2·°C).  
1.2 This practice is suitable for exposure of both glass and plastic solar collector cover materials. Provisions are made for exposure of single and double cover assemblies to accommodate the need for exposure of both inner and outer solar collector cover materials.  
1.3 This practice does not apply to cover materials for evacuated collectors, photovoltaic cells, flat-plate collectors having a combined back and edge loss coefficient greater than 1.5 W/(m2·°C), or flat-plate collectors whose design incorporates means for limiting temperatures during stagnation.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    8 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off
ASTM
ASTM E782-95(2022)(Practice)
Standard Practice for Exposure of Cover Materials for Solar Collectors to Natural Weathering Under Conditions Simulating Operational Mode

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
3.1 This practice describes a weathering box test fixture and provides uniform exposure guidelines to minimize the variables encountered during outdoor exposure testing.  
3.2 This practice may be useful in comparing the performance of different materials at one site or the performance of the same material at different sites, or both.  
3.3 Since the combination of elevated temperature and solar radiation may cause some solar collector cover materials to degrade more rapidly than either alone, a weathering box that elevates the temperature of the cover materials is used.  
3.4 This practice is intended to assist in the evaluation of solar collector cover materials in the operational, not stagnation mode. Insufficient data exist to obtain exact correlation between the behavior of materials exposed according to this practice and actual in-service performance.  
3.5 Means of evaluation of effects of weathering are provided in Practice E781, and in other ASTM test methods that evaluate material properties.  
3.6 Tests of the type described in this practice may be used to evaluate the stability of solar collector cover materials when exposed outdoors to the varied influences which comprise weather. Exposure conditions are complex and changeable. Important factors are solar radiation, temperature, moisture, time of year, presence of pollutants, etc. These factors vary from site to site and should be considered in selecting locations for exposure. Control samples must always be used in weathering tests for comparative analysis. Outdoor exposure for at least two years is required to make evident changes, such as surface degradation without the use of sophisticated analytical equipment.  
3.7 Temperature conditions attained with this box may not exactly duplicate those that occur under operational conditions with fluid flow. Dependent on environmental exposure conditions, the cover plate temperatures obtained with this box may be higher or lower than those obtained und...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice provides a procedure for the exposure of cover materials for flat-plate solar collectors to the natural weather environment at temperatures that are elevated to approximate operating conditions.  
1.2 This practice is suitable for exposure of both glass and plastic solar collector cover materials. Provisions are made for exposure of single and double cover assemblies to accommodate the need for exposure of both inner and outer solar collector cover materials.  
1.3 This practice does not apply to cover materials for evacuated collectors or photovoltaics.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

  • Standard
    4 pages
    English language
    sale 15% off