ASTM E2392/E2392M-10(2016)
(Guide)Standard Guide for Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems
Standard Guide for Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Historical Overview—Earthen building systems have been used throughout the world for thousands of years. Adobe construction dates back to the walls of Jericho which was built around 8300 B.C. Many extant earthen structures have been functioning for hundreds of years. However, with the development of newer building materials, earthen building systems have fallen into disfavor in parts of the world where they were once commonly used. At the same time, earthen construction is experiencing a revival in the industrialized world, driven by a number of factors.
5.2 Sustainability—As world population continues to rise and people continue to address basic shelter requirements, it becomes increasingly necessary to promote construction techniques with less life cycle impact on the earth. Earthen building systems are one type of technique that may have a favorable life cycle impact.
5.3 Building Code Impact—Earthen building systems have historically not been engineered, but as of the late 20th Century it is for the first time in history possible to reliably apply rational structural design methods to earthen construction. A large number of earthen building codes, guidelines and standards have appeared around the world over the past few decades, based upon a considerable amount of research and field observations regarding the seismic, thermal and moisture durability performance of earthen structures. Some of those standards are:
Australian Earth Building Handbook
California Historical Building Code
Chinese Building Standards
Ecuadorian Earthen Building Standards
German Earthen Building Standards
Indian Earthen Building Standards
International Building Code / provisions for adobe construction
New Mexico Earthen Building Materials Code
New Zealand Earthen Building Standards
Peruvian Earthen Building Standards
This guide draws from those documents and the global experience to date in providing guidance on earthen construction to ...
SCOPE
1.1 This standard provides guidance for earthen building systems, also called earthen construction, and addresses both technical requirements and considerations for sustainable development. Earthen building systems include adobe, rammed earth, cob, cast earth, and other earthen building technologies used as structural and non-structural wall systems.
Note 1: Other earthen building systems not specifically described in these guidelines, as well as domed, vaulted, and arched earthen structures as are common in many areas, can also make use of these guidelines when consistent with successful local building traditions or engineering judgment.
1.1.1 There are many decisions in the design and construction of a building that can contribute to the maintenance of ecosystem components and functions for future generations. One such decision is the selection of products for use in the building. This guide addresses sustainability issues related to the use of earthen wall building systems.
1.1.2 The considerations for sustainable development relative to earthen wall building systems are categorized as follows: materials (product feedstock), manufacturing process, operational performance (product installed), and indoor environmental quality (IEQ).
1.1.3 The technical requirements for earthen building systems are categorized as follows: design criteria, structural and non-structural systems, and structural and non-structural components.
1.2 Provisions of this guide do not apply to materials and products used in architectural cast stone (see Specification C1364).
1.3 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to add...
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This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: E2392/E2392M − 10 (Reapproved 2016)
Standard Guide for
Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems
ThisstandardisissuedunderthefixeddesignationE2392/E2392M;thenumberimmediatelyfollowingthedesignationindicatestheyear
of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.
A superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
1.1 This standard provides guidance for earthen building
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
systems, also called earthen construction, and addresses both
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
technical requirements and considerations for sustainable de-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
velopment. Earthen building systems include adobe, rammed
earth, cob, cast earth, and other earthen building technologies
2. Referenced Documents
used as structural and non-structural wall systems.
2.1 ASTM Standards:
NOTE 1—Other earthen building systems not specifically described in
C1364 Specification for Architectural Cast Stone
these guidelines, as well as domed, vaulted, and arched earthen structures
D2487 Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering
as are common in many areas, can also make use of these guidelines when
Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
consistent with successful local building traditions or engineering judg-
ment. E631 Terminology of Building Constructions
E2114 Terminology for Sustainability Relative to the Perfor-
1.1.1 There are many decisions in the design and construc-
mance of Buildings
tion of a building that can contribute to the maintenance of
2.2 ASCE Standards:
ecosystem components and functions for future generations.
ANSI/ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
One such decision is the selection of products for use in the
Other Structures
building. This guide addresses sustainability issues related to
2.3 New Zealand Standards:
the use of earthen wall building systems.
NZS 4297:1998 Engineering Design of Earth Buildings,
1.1.2 The considerations for sustainable development rela-
tive to earthen wall building systems are categorized as
NZS 4298:1998 Materials and Workmanship for Earth
follows: materials (product feedstock), manufacturing process,
Buildings, 1998
operational performance (product installed), and indoor envi-
NZS 4299:1998 New Zealand Standard, Earth Buildings not
ronmental quality (IEQ).
requiring Specific Design, 1998 (including amendment
1.1.3 The technical requirements for earthen building sys-
#1, December 1999)
tems are categorized as follows: design criteria, structural and
non-structural systems, and structural and non-structural com-
3. Terminology
ponents.
3.1 Definitions:
1.2 Provisions of this guide do not apply to materials and
3.1.1 For terms related to building construction, refer to
products used in architectural cast stone (see Specification
Terminology E631.
C1364).
3.1.2 For terms related to sustainability relative to the
1.3 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units
performance of buildings, refer to Terminology E2114. Some
are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in
of these terms are reprinted here for ease of use.
each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each
3.1.3 alternative agricultural products, n—bio-based indus-
system shall be used independently of the other. Combining
trial products (non-food, non-feed) manufactured from agricul-
values from the two systems may result in non-conformance
tural materials and animal by-products.
with the standard.
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
This guide is under the jurisdiction ofASTM Committee E60 on Sustainability Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E60.01 on Buildings and Construc- the ASTM website.
tion. Available from American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1801 Alexander
Current edition approved Sept. 1, 2016. Published September 2016. Originally Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191, http://www.asce.org.
ɛ1 4
approvedin2005.Lastpreviouseditionapprovedin2010asE2392/E2392M – 10 . Available from Standards New Zealand, Ministry of Business, Innovation &
DOI: 10.1520/E2392_E2392M-10R16. Employment, 15 Stout Street, Wellington 6011, http://www.standards.govt.nz.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
3.1.4 biodegradable, adj—capable of decomposing under (4)(structure), the building that is built of adobe (1), (3); and
natural conditions into elements found in nature. (5)(building design),anarchitecturalstyleofearthenconstruc-
tion (see also 3.2.9).
3.1.5 biodiversity, n—the variability among living organ-
3.2.1.1 Discussion—The word itself comes from an Arabic
isms from all sources including: terrestrial, marine and other
word atob, which means muck or sticky glob or atubah “the
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which
brick.” In many other countries, the word “adobe” is
they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between
meaningless, and it is more accurate to say “earthen-brick.”
species and of ecosystems.
“Adobe architecture” also has different meanings in different
3.1.6 ecosystem, n—a community of biological organisms
places.
and their physical environment, functioning together as an
3.2.2 asphalt emulsion, n—a thick liquid made by combin-
interdependent unit within a defined area.
ing by-products of crude oil distillation with water and
3.1.6.1 Discussion—For the purposes of this definition,
proprietary surfactants.
humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms are individually
3.2.3 cast earth, n—a construction system utilizing a slurry
all considered biological organisms.
containing soil plus a chemical binder such as portland cement
3.1.7 embodied energy, n—the energy used through the life
or calcined gypsum and water, which is sprayed against or
cycle of a material or product to extract, refine, process,
poured into forms similar to those used for cast-in-place
fabricate, transport, install, commission, utilize, maintain,
concrete; also called poured earth.
remove, and ultimately recycle or dispose of the substances
3.2.3.1 Discussion—In the sprayed system, modern shot-
comprising the item.
crete equipment is adapted to spray the wet earth mixture,
3.1.7.1 Discussion—The total energy which a product may
which is usually stabilized earth.
be said to “contain” including all energy used in, inter alia,
3.2.4 clay, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes less than
growing, extracting, transporting and manufacturing. The em-
0.002 mm [0.00008 in.] having the characteristics of high to
bodied energy of a structure or system includes the embodied
very high dry strength and medium to high plasticity.
energy of its components plus the energy used in construction.
3.2.4.1 Discussion—This size definition for clay, along with
3.1.8 indoor environmental quality, IEQ, n—the condition
those for silt, sand and gravel, is according to Practice D2487.
or state of the indoor environment.
Other standards in the world have slightly different size
3.1.8.1 Discussion—Aspects of IEQ include but are not
limitations.
limited to characteristics of the thermal, air, luminous and
3.2.5 cob, n—a construction system utilizing moist earthen
acoustic environment. Primary areas of concern in considering
material stacked without formwork and lightly tamped into
the IEQ usually relate to the health, comfort and productivity
place to form monolithic walls.
of the occupants within the indoor environment, but may also
3.2.5.1 Discussion—Reinforcing is often provided with or-
relate to potential damage to property, such as sensitive
ganic fibrous materials such as straw.
equipment or artifacts.
3.2.6 earth, n—granular material derived from rock, usually
3.1.9 renewable resource, n—a resource that is grown,
with air voids and often with organic content (humus) (also
naturally replenished, or cleansed, at a rate which exceeds
called soil).
depletion of the usable supply of that resource.
3.2.7 earth, stabilized, n—earthen building mixtures to
3.1.9.1 Discussion—Arenewable resource can be exhausted
which admixtures are added during the manufacturing process
if improperly managed. However, a renewable resource can
to help limit water absorption, stabilize volume, increase
last indefinitely with proper stewardship. Examples include:
strength, and increase durability (see also stabilization).
trees in forests, grasses in grasslands, and fertile soil.
3.2.8 earth, unstabilized, n—earthen building mixtures that
3.1.10 sustainability, n—the maintenance of ecosystem
do not contain admixtures intended to help limit water
components and functions for future generations.
absorption, stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase
3.1.11 sustainable development, n—development that meets
durability (see also stabilization).
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
3.2.9 earthen construction, n—construction in which walls
future generations to meet their own needs.
and partitions are comprised primarily of earth.
3.1.12 toxicity, n—the property of a material, or combina-
3.2.9.1 Discussion—Roofs and other framing may be
tion of materials, to adversely affect organisms. wholly or partly of wood or other materials. Common earthen
construction systems go by many names, which sometimes
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
connote minor variations. Some of those names are:
3.2.1 adobe, n—(1)(building product), unfired masonry
adobe,or mud brick, earthen brick, banco, butabu, brique de terre
units made of soil, water, and sometimes straw or other
cast earth, or poured earth, earthcrete, sprayed earth
admixtures;
cob, or zabur, puddled mud, puddled earth
(2)(product feedstock), the soil/straw/admixtures mix that is extruded earth block
pressed brick,or compressed earth brick/block (CEB)
used to make adobe (1), (here also called earthen building
rammed earth,or pisé, tapial
mixtures or earthen material;
sod, or turf, fale and divet
(3)(building product), the earth plaster used for covering walls tire houses, also earth bags, earth tubes
wattle and daub, or quincha, jacal, barjareque, nyumba yo mata
or ceilings, or both;
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
3.2.10 energy effıcient, adj—refers to a product that requires 3.2.21 silt, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes ranging
less energy to manufacture or uses less energy when operating from 0.002 to 0.75 mm [0.00008 to 0.03 in.] having the
characteristics of low dry strength, low plasticity, and little
in comparison with a benchmark for energy use, or both.
dilatancy.
3.2.10.1 Discussion—For example, the product may meet a
recognizedbenchmark,suchastheEPA’sEnergyStarProgram
3.2.22 soil, n—see earth,
standards.
3.2.23 stabilization, n—modification of soils to limit water
3.2.11 gravel, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes greater absorption, stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase
than 4.75 mm [0.187 in.]. durability, or some combination of these.
3.2.23.1 Discussion—For the purposes of this guide, refer-
3.2.12 horizon, n—distinctive layer of in situ soil having
ence to “stabilization” or “stabilized” means chemical stabili-
uniform qualities of color, texture, organic material, and
zation or chemically stabilized. Chemical stabilization is
obliteration of original rock material.
achieved by the intermixture of cement, lime, gypsum, asphalt
3.2.12.1 Discussion—In World Reference Base for Soil
emulsion, or other materials with the soil before emplacement,
Resources, by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
and curing as appropriate for the stabilizer and chemical
United Nations, seven master horizons are recognized – H, O,
reaction. Mechanical stabilization is achieved by compacting
A, E, B, C, and R.
or compressing a plastic earth mixture, or containing earth in
3.2.13 loam, n—soil with a high percentage of organic permanent forms such as bags.
material, particles are predominately silt size but range from
3.2.24 straw, n—anagriculturalwasteproductthatisthedry
clay size to sand size.
stems of cereal grains, or sometimes native grasses, after the
3.2.13.1 Discussion—Loams are usually good agricultural
seed heads have been removed.
soils due to their nutritional organic content and their ability to
3.2.25 straw-clay, n—a construction system that consists of
hold water. Loams should be avoided in earthen construction,
clay slip mixed with straw, of which straw makes up a high
as the organic content is subject to biological decay and
percentage by volume.
volume change. Note that the word “loam” derives from the
3.2.25.1 Discussion—Other fibers such as wood shavings or
German “lehm.” In Europe, “loam” and “lehm” usually have
paper are sometimes used. This system is well suited for
an opposite meaning; that is, they connote earth with a very
manufacturing blocks and in situ insulating wall panels.
low organic content, ideal for building but not for agriculture.
3.2.14 material (product feedstock), n—refers to the sub-
4. Summary of Guide
stances that are required for the manufacture or fabrication, or
4.1 This guide identifies the principles of sustainability
both, of a building product.
associated with earthen building systems. Additionally, it
3.2.14.1 Discussion—Material resources include raw mate-
outlines technical issues associated with earthen building
rials and recycled content materials.
systems, identifying those that are similar to construction that
is commonly used in the marketplace.
3.2.15 moisture wicking—thecapillaryuptakeofwaterfrom
foundation soil or precipitation.
4.2 This guide is intended for use in framing decisions for
3.2.15.1 Discussion—Moisture wicking can result in satu-
individual projects.
ration of adobe with an accompanying decrease in strength and
4.3 This guide is intended for use in development of
durability.
standards and building codes for earthen building systems.
3.2.16 operational performance, n—refers to the function-
ality of a product during its service life.
5. Significance and Use
3.2.16.1 Discussion—Specific measures of operational per-
5.1 Historical Overview—Earthen building
...
NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation: E2392/E2392M − 10 (Reapproved 2016)
Standard Guide for
Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2392/E2392M; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year
of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.
A superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
1.1 This standard provides guidance for earthen building
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
systems, also called earthen construction, and addresses both
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
technical requirements and considerations for sustainable de-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
velopment. Earthen building systems include adobe, rammed
earth, cob, cast earth, and other earthen building technologies
2. Referenced Documents
used as structural and non-structural wall systems.
2.1 ASTM Standards:
NOTE 1—Other earthen building systems not specifically described in
C1364 Specification for Architectural Cast Stone
these guidelines, as well as domed, vaulted, and arched earthen structures
D2487 Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering
as are common in many areas, can also make use of these guidelines when
Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
consistent with successful local building traditions or engineering judg-
ment. E631 Terminology of Building Constructions
E2114 Terminology for Sustainability Relative to the Perfor-
1.1.1 There are many decisions in the design and construc-
mance of Buildings
tion of a building that can contribute to the maintenance of
2.2 ASCE Standards:
ecosystem components and functions for future generations.
ANSI/ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
One such decision is the selection of products for use in the
Other Structures
building. This guide addresses sustainability issues related to
2.3 New Zealand Standards:
the use of earthen wall building systems.
NZS 4297:1998 Engineering Design of Earth Buildings,
1.1.2 The considerations for sustainable development rela-
tive to earthen wall building systems are categorized as
NZS 4298:1998 Materials and Workmanship for Earth
follows: materials (product feedstock), manufacturing process,
Buildings, 1998
operational performance (product installed), and indoor envi-
NZS 4299:1998 New Zealand Standard, Earth Buildings not
ronmental quality (IEQ).
requiring Specific Design, 1998 (including amendment
1.1.3 The technical requirements for earthen building sys-
#1, December 1999)
tems are categorized as follows: design criteria, structural and
non-structural systems, and structural and non-structural com-
3. Terminology
ponents.
3.1 Definitions:
1.2 Provisions of this guide do not apply to materials and
3.1.1 For terms related to building construction, refer to
products used in architectural cast stone (see Specification
Terminology E631.
C1364).
3.1.2 For terms related to sustainability relative to the
1.3 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units
performance of buildings, refer to Terminology E2114. Some
are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in
of these terms are reprinted here for ease of use.
each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each
3.1.3 alternative agricultural products, n—bio-based indus-
system shall be used independently of the other. Combining
trial products (non-food, non-feed) manufactured from agricul-
values from the two systems may result in non-conformance
tural materials and animal by-products.
with the standard.
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E60 on Sustainability Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E60.01 on Buildings and Construc- the ASTM website.
tion. Available from American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1801 Alexander
Current edition approved Sept. 1, 2016. Published September 2016. Originally Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191, http://www.asce.org.
ɛ1 4
approved in 2005. Last previous edition approved in 2010 as E2392/E2392M – 10 . Available from Standards New Zealand, Ministry of Business, Innovation &
DOI: 10.1520/E2392_E2392M-10R16. Employment, 15 Stout Street, Wellington 6011, http://www.standards.govt.nz.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
3.1.4 biodegradable, adj—capable of decomposing under (4) (structure), the building that is built of adobe (1), (3); and
natural conditions into elements found in nature. (5) (building design), an architectural style of earthen construc-
tion (see also 3.2.9).
3.1.5 biodiversity, n—the variability among living organ-
3.2.1.1 Discussion—The word itself comes from an Arabic
isms from all sources including: terrestrial, marine and other
word atob, which means muck or sticky glob or atubah “the
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which
brick.” In many other countries, the word “adobe” is
they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between
meaningless, and it is more accurate to say “earthen-brick.”
species and of ecosystems.
“Adobe architecture” also has different meanings in different
3.1.6 ecosystem, n—a community of biological organisms
places.
and their physical environment, functioning together as an
3.2.2 asphalt emulsion, n—a thick liquid made by combin-
interdependent unit within a defined area.
ing by-products of crude oil distillation with water and
3.1.6.1 Discussion—For the purposes of this definition,
proprietary surfactants.
humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms are individually
3.2.3 cast earth, n—a construction system utilizing a slurry
all considered biological organisms.
containing soil plus a chemical binder such as portland cement
3.1.7 embodied energy, n—the energy used through the life
or calcined gypsum and water, which is sprayed against or
cycle of a material or product to extract, refine, process,
poured into forms similar to those used for cast-in-place
fabricate, transport, install, commission, utilize, maintain,
concrete; also called poured earth.
remove, and ultimately recycle or dispose of the substances
3.2.3.1 Discussion—In the sprayed system, modern shot-
comprising the item.
crete equipment is adapted to spray the wet earth mixture,
3.1.7.1 Discussion—The total energy which a product may
which is usually stabilized earth.
be said to “contain” including all energy used in, inter alia,
3.2.4 clay, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes less than
growing, extracting, transporting and manufacturing. The em-
0.002 mm [0.00008 in.] having the characteristics of high to
bodied energy of a structure or system includes the embodied
very high dry strength and medium to high plasticity.
energy of its components plus the energy used in construction.
3.2.4.1 Discussion—This size definition for clay, along with
3.1.8 indoor environmental quality, IEQ, n—the condition
those for silt, sand and gravel, is according to Practice D2487.
or state of the indoor environment.
Other standards in the world have slightly different size
3.1.8.1 Discussion—Aspects of IEQ include but are not
limitations.
limited to characteristics of the thermal, air, luminous and
3.2.5 cob, n—a construction system utilizing moist earthen
acoustic environment. Primary areas of concern in considering
material stacked without formwork and lightly tamped into
the IEQ usually relate to the health, comfort and productivity
place to form monolithic walls.
of the occupants within the indoor environment, but may also
3.2.5.1 Discussion—Reinforcing is often provided with or-
relate to potential damage to property, such as sensitive
ganic fibrous materials such as straw.
equipment or artifacts.
3.2.6 earth, n—granular material derived from rock, usually
3.1.9 renewable resource, n—a resource that is grown,
with air voids and often with organic content (humus) (also
naturally replenished, or cleansed, at a rate which exceeds
called soil).
depletion of the usable supply of that resource.
3.2.7 earth, stabilized, n—earthen building mixtures to
3.1.9.1 Discussion—A renewable resource can be exhausted
which admixtures are added during the manufacturing process
if improperly managed. However, a renewable resource can
to help limit water absorption, stabilize volume, increase
last indefinitely with proper stewardship. Examples include:
strength, and increase durability (see also stabilization).
trees in forests, grasses in grasslands, and fertile soil.
3.2.8 earth, unstabilized, n—earthen building mixtures that
3.1.10 sustainability, n—the maintenance of ecosystem
do not contain admixtures intended to help limit water
components and functions for future generations.
absorption, stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase
3.1.11 sustainable development, n—development that meets
durability (see also stabilization).
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
3.2.9 earthen construction, n—construction in which walls
future generations to meet their own needs.
and partitions are comprised primarily of earth.
3.1.12 toxicity, n—the property of a material, or combina- 3.2.9.1 Discussion—Roofs and other framing may be
tion of materials, to adversely affect organisms.
wholly or partly of wood or other materials. Common earthen
construction systems go by many names, which sometimes
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
connote minor variations. Some of those names are:
3.2.1 adobe, n—(1) (building product), unfired masonry
adobe, or mud brick, earthen brick, banco, butabu, brique de terre
units made of soil, water, and sometimes straw or other
cast earth, or poured earth, earthcrete, sprayed earth
admixtures;
cob, or zabur, puddled mud, puddled earth
(2) (product feedstock), the soil/straw/admixtures mix that is extruded earth block
pressed brick, or compressed earth brick/block (CEB)
used to make adobe (1), (here also called earthen building
rammed earth, or pisé, tapial
mixtures or earthen material;
sod, or turf, fale and divet
(3) (building product), the earth plaster used for covering walls tire houses, also earth bags, earth tubes
wattle and daub, or quincha, jacal, barjareque, nyumba yo mata
or ceilings, or both;
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
3.2.10 energy effıcient, adj—refers to a product that requires 3.2.21 silt, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes ranging
from 0.002 to 0.75 mm [0.00008 to 0.03 in.] having the
less energy to manufacture or uses less energy when operating
in comparison with a benchmark for energy use, or both. characteristics of low dry strength, low plasticity, and little
dilatancy.
3.2.10.1 Discussion—For example, the product may meet a
recognized benchmark, such as the EPA’s Energy Star Program
3.2.22 soil, n—see earth,
standards.
3.2.23 stabilization, n—modification of soils to limit water
3.2.11 gravel, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes greater
absorption, stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase
than 4.75 mm [0.187 in.]. durability, or some combination of these.
3.2.23.1 Discussion—For the purposes of this guide, refer-
3.2.12 horizon, n—distinctive layer of in situ soil having
ence to “stabilization” or “stabilized” means chemical stabili-
uniform qualities of color, texture, organic material, and
zation or chemically stabilized. Chemical stabilization is
obliteration of original rock material.
achieved by the intermixture of cement, lime, gypsum, asphalt
3.2.12.1 Discussion—In World Reference Base for Soil
emulsion, or other materials with the soil before emplacement,
Resources, by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
and curing as appropriate for the stabilizer and chemical
United Nations, seven master horizons are recognized – H, O,
reaction. Mechanical stabilization is achieved by compacting
A, E, B, C, and R.
or compressing a plastic earth mixture, or containing earth in
permanent forms such as bags.
3.2.13 loam, n—soil with a high percentage of organic
material, particles are predominately silt size but range from
3.2.24 straw, n—an agricultural waste product that is the dry
clay size to sand size.
stems of cereal grains, or sometimes native grasses, after the
3.2.13.1 Discussion—Loams are usually good agricultural
seed heads have been removed.
soils due to their nutritional organic content and their ability to
3.2.25 straw-clay, n—a construction system that consists of
hold water. Loams should be avoided in earthen construction,
clay slip mixed with straw, of which straw makes up a high
as the organic content is subject to biological decay and
percentage by volume.
volume change. Note that the word “loam” derives from the
3.2.25.1 Discussion—Other fibers such as wood shavings or
German “lehm.” In Europe, “loam” and “lehm” usually have
paper are sometimes used. This system is well suited for
an opposite meaning; that is, they connote earth with a very
manufacturing blocks and in situ insulating wall panels.
low organic content, ideal for building but not for agriculture.
3.2.14 material (product feedstock), n—refers to the sub-
4. Summary of Guide
stances that are required for the manufacture or fabrication, or
4.1 This guide identifies the principles of sustainability
both, of a building product.
associated with earthen building systems. Additionally, it
3.2.14.1 Discussion—Material resources include raw mate-
outlines technical issues associated with earthen building
rials and recycled content materials.
systems, identifying those that are similar to construction that
is commonly used in the marketplace.
3.2.15 moisture wicking—the capillary uptake of water from
foundation soil or precipitation.
4.2 This guide is intended for use in framing decisions for
3.2.15.1 Discussion—Moisture wicking can result in satu-
individual projects.
ration of adobe with an accompanying decrease in strength and
4.3 This guide is intended for use in development of
durability.
standards and building codes for earthen building systems.
3.2.16 operational performance, n—refers to the function-
ality of a product during its service life.
5. Significance and Use
3.2.16.1 Discussion—Specific measures of operational per-
5.1 Historical Overview—Earthen building systems have
formance will vary depending upon the product. Aspects of
...
This document is not an ASTM standard and is intended only to provide the user of an ASTM standard an indication of what changes have been made to the previous version. Because
it may not be technically possible to adequately depict all changes accurately, ASTM recommends that users consult prior editions as appropriate. In all cases only the current version
of the standard as published by ASTM is to be considered the official document.
´1
Designation: E2392/E2392M − 10 E2392/E2392M − 10 (Reapproved 2016)
Standard Guide for
Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2392/E2392M; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year
of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.
A superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
ε NOTE—Section 2.3 was corrected editorially in May 2010.
1. Scope
1.1 This standard provides guidance for earthen building systems, also called earthen construction, and addresses both technical
requirements and considerations for sustainable development. Earthen building systems include adobe, rammed earth, cob, cast
earth, and other earthen building technologies used as structural and non-structural wall systems.
NOTE 1—Other earthen building systems not specifically described in these guidelines, as well as domed, vaulted, and arched earthen structures as are
common in many areas, can also make use of these guidelines when consistent with successful local building traditions or engineering judgment.
1.1.1 There are many decisions in the design and construction of a building that can contribute to the maintenance of ecosystem
components and functions for future generations. One such decision is the selection of products for use in the building. This guide
addresses sustainability issues related to the use of earthen wall building systems.
1.1.2 The considerations for sustainable development relative to earthen wall building systems are categorized as follows:
materials (product feedstock), manufacturing process, operational performance (product installed), and indoor environmental
quality (IEQ).
1.1.3 The technical requirements for earthen building systems are categorized as follows: design criteria, structural and
non-structural systems, and structural and non-structural components.
1.2 Provisions of this guide do not apply to materials and products used in architectural cast stone (see Specification C1364).
1.3 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each
system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the
two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility
of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory
limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
C1364 Specification for Architectural Cast Stone
D2487 Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
E631 Terminology of Building Constructions
E2114 Terminology for Sustainability Relative to the Performance of Buildings
2.2 ASCE Standards:
ANSI/ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
2.3 New Zealand Standards:
NZS 4297:1998 Engineering Design of Earth Buildings, 1998
NZS 4298:1998 Materials and Workmanship for Earth Buildings, 1998
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E60 on Sustainability and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E60.01 on Buildings and Construction.
Current edition approved Jan. 15, 2010Sept. 1, 2016. Published March 2010September 2016. Originally approved in 2005. Last previous edition approved in 20052010
ɛ1
as E2392 – 05.E2392/E2392M – 10 . DOI: 10.1520/E2392-10E01.10.1520/E2392_E2392M-10R16.
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM Standards
volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the ASTM website.
Available from American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191, http://www.asce.org.
Available from Standards New Zealand, Radio New Zealand House, Level 10, 155, The Terrace, Wellington 6011, http://www.standards.co.nz. Ministry of Business,
Innovation & Employment, 15 Stout Street, Wellington 6011, http://www.standards.govt.nz.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
NZS 4299:1998 New Zealand Standard, Earth Buildings not requiring Specific Design, 1998 (including amendment #1,
December 1999)
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions:
3.1.1 For terms related to building construction, refer to Terminology E631.
3.1.2 For terms related to sustainability relative to the performance of buildings, refer to Terminology E2114. Some of these
terms are reprinted here for ease of use.
3.1.3 alternative agricultural products, n—bio-based industrial products (non-food, non-feed) manufactured from agricultural
materials and animal by-products.
3.1.4 biodegradable, adj—capable of decomposing under natural conditions into elements found in nature.
3.1.5 biodiversity, n—the variability among living organisms from all sources including: terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems.
3.1.6 ecosystem, n—a community of biological organisms and their physical environment, functioning together as an
interdependent unit within a defined area.
3.1.6.1 Discussion—
For the purposes of this definition, humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms are individually all considered biological
organisms.
3.1.7 embodied energy, n—the energy used through the life cycle of a material or product to extract, refine, process, fabricate,
transport, install, commission, utilize, maintain, remove, and ultimately recycle or dispose of the substances comprising the item.
3.1.7.1 Discussion—
The total energy which a product may be said to “ contain” “contain” including all energy used in, inter alia, growing, extracting,
transporting and manufacturing. The embodied energy of a structure or system includes the embodied energy of its components
plus the energy used in construction.
3.1.8 indoor environmental quality, IEQ, n—the condition or state of the indoor environment.
3.1.8.1 Discussion—
Aspects of IEQ include but are not limited to characteristics of the thermal, air, luminous and acoustic environment. Primary areas
of concern in considering the IEQ usually relate to the health, comfort and productivity of the occupants within the indoor
environment, but may also relate to potential damage to property, such as sensitive equipment or artifacts.
3.1.9 renewable resource, n—a resource that is grown, naturally replenished, or cleansed, at a rate which exceeds depletion of
the usable supply of that resource.
3.1.9.1 Discussion—
A renewable resource can be exhausted if improperly managed. However, a renewable resource can last indefinitely with proper
stewardship. Examples include: trees in forests, grasses in grasslands, and fertile soil.
3.1.10 sustainability, n—the maintenance of ecosystem components and functions for future generations.
3.1.11 sustainable development, n—development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
3.1.12 toxicity, n—the property of a material, or combination of materials, to adversely affect organisms.
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.2.1 adobe, n—(1) (building product), unfired masonry units made of soil, water, and sometimes straw or other admixtures;
(2) (product feedstock), the soil/straw/admixtures mix that is used to make adobe (1), (here also called earthen building mixtures
or earthen material;
(3) (building product), the earth plaster used for covering walls or ceilings, or both;
(4) (structure), the building that is built of adobe (1), (3); and
(5) (building design), an architectural style of earthen construction (see also 3.2.9).
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
3.2.1.1 Discussion—
The word itself comes from an Arabic word atob, which means muck or sticky glob or atubah “the brick.” In many other countries,
the word “adobe” is meaningless, and it is more accurate to say “earthen-brick.” “Adobe architecture” also has different meanings
in different places.
3.2.2 asphalt emulsion, n—a thick liquid made by combining by-products of crude oil distillation with water and proprietary
surfactants.
3.2.3 cast earth, n—a construction system utilizing a slurry containing soil plus a chemical binder such as portland cement or
calcined gypsum and water, which is sprayed against or poured into forms similar to those used for cast-in-place concrete; also
called poured earth.
3.2.3.1 Discussion—
In the sprayed system, modern shotcrete equipment is adapted to spray the wet earth mixture, which is usually stabilized earth.
3.2.4 clay, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes less than 0.002 mm (0.00008 in.)[0.00008 in.] having the characteristics of high
to very high dry strength and medium to high plasticity.
3.2.4.1 Discussion—
This size definition for clay, along with those for silt, sand and gravel, is according to Practice D2487. Other standards in the world
have slightly different size limitations.
3.2.5 cob, n—a construction system utilizing moist earthen material stacked without formwork and lightly tamped into place to
form monolithic walls.
3.2.5.1 Discussion—
Reinforcing is often provided with organic fibrous materials such as straw.
3.2.6 earth, n—granular material derived from rock, usually with air voids and often with organic content (humus) (also called
soil).
3.2.7 earth, stabilized, n—earthen building mixtures to which admixtures are added during the manufacturing process to help
limit water absorption, stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase durability (see also stabilization).
3.2.8 earth, unstabilized, n—earthen building mixtures that do not contain admixtures intended to help limit water absorption,
stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase durability (see also stabilization).
3.2.9 earthen construction, n—construction in which walls and partitions are comprised primarily of earth.
3.2.9.1 Discussion—
Roofs and other framing may be wholly or partly of wood or other materials. Common earthen construction systems go by many
names, which sometimes connote minor variations. Some of those names are:
adobe, or mud brick, earthen brick, banco, butabu, brique de terre
cast earth, or poured earth, earthcrete, sprayed earth
cob, or zabur, puddled mud, puddled earth
extruded earth block
pressed brick, or compressed earth brick/block (CEB)
rammed earth, or pisé, tapial
sod, or turf, fale and divet
tire houses, also earth bags, earth tubes
wattle and daub, or quincha, jacal, barjareque, nyumba yo mata
3.2.10 energy effıcient, adj—refers to a product that requires less energy to manufacture or uses less energy when operating in
comparison with a benchmark for energy use, or both.
3.2.10.1 Discussion—
For example, the product may meet a recognized benchmark, such as the EPA’s Energy Star Program standards.
3.2.11 gravel, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes greater than 4.75 mm (0.187 in.).[0.187 in.].
E2392/E2392M − 10 (2016)
3.2.12 horizon, n—distinctive layer of in situ soil having uniform qualities of color, texture, organic material, and obliteration
of original rock material.
3.2.12.1 Discussion—
In World Reference Base for Soil Resources, by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, seven master
horizons are recognized – H, O, A, E, B, C, and R.
3.2.13 loam, n—soil with a high percentage of organic material, particles are predominately silt size but range from clay size
to sand size.
3.2.13.1 Discussion—
Loams are usually good agricultural soils due to their nutritional organic content and their ability to hold water. Loams should be
avoided in earthen construction, as the organic content is subject to biological decay and volume change. Note that the word “
loam” “loam” derives from the German “lehm.” In Europe, “loam” and “lehm” usually have an opposite meaning; that is, they
connote earth with a very low organic content, ideal for building but not for agriculture.
3.2.14 material (product feedstock), n—refers to the substances that are required for the manufacture or fabrication, or both, of
a building product.
3.2.14.1 Discussion—
Material resources include raw materials and recycled content materials.
3.2.15 moisture wicking—the capillary uptake of water from foundation soil or precipitation.
3.2.15.1 Discussion—
Moisture wicking can result in saturation of adobe with an accompanying decrease in strength and durability.
3.2.16 operational performance, n—refers to the functionality of a product during its service life.
3.2.16.1 Discussion—
Specific measures of operational performance will vary depending upon the product. Aspects of operational performance include:
structural strength, durability, energy efficiency, and water efficiency.
3.2.17 poured earth, n—see cast earth.
3.2.18 pressed block, n—a block (or brick, or the construction system using those blocks) that consists of earthen materials
formed in a block mold by the mechanical compaction of lightly moistened earth into a dense mass (also called compressed earth
block, CEB).
3.2.19 rammed earth, n—a construction system that consists of walls made from moist, sandy soil, or chemically stabilized soil,
which is tamped into forms (mechanically stabilized).
3.2.20 sand, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes ranging from 0.75 to 4.75 mm (0.03[0.03 to 0.19 in.).in.].
3.2.21 silt, n—inorganic soil with particle sizes ranging from 0.002 to 0.75 mm (0.00008[0.00008 to 0.03 in.)in.] having the
characteristics of low dry strength, low plasticity, and little dilatancy.
3.2.22 soil, n—see earth,
3.2.23 stabilization, n—modification of soils to limit water absorption, stabilize volume, increase strength, and increase
durability, or some combination of these.
3.2.23.1 Discussion—
For the purposes of this guide, reference to “stabilization” or “stabilized” means chemical stabilization or chemically stabilized.
Chemical stabilization is achieved by the intermixture of cement, lime, gypsum, asphalt emulsion, or
...
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