ASTM F1633-97(2003)
(Guide)Standard Guide for Techniques in Land Search
Standard Guide for Techniques in Land Search
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Lost persons are at risk of injury or death from extended periods of isolation, either mental, physical, or both. Their inability to solve immediate problems requires that search and rescue (SAR) personnel use the most efficient and effective techniques to resolve the lost person’ situation and to minimize the risks of injury or death.
Searching for immobile or unresponsive subjects, including those deceased, places further limitations upon the search options that are available to search managers. Where appropriate, the guide identifies these limitations.
The use of the listed techniques improves the probability of locating a lost or missing person when applied to land search incidents. These techniques may be employed at the discretion of and under the direction and control of a land search manager.
Terms used in this guide are not intended to be comprehensive, nor are they presumed to be inclusive of all terminology used in the search function.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide identifies and describes techniques that may be used by individuals or agencies when searching for persons, property, or evidence on land. The application of one or more of these techniques to any particular land search will depend upon the individual circumstances of the search and the judgment of the person responsible for conducting the search.
1.2 This guide assists individuals and agencies by providing a list of techniques for their consideration during a land search and by providing a brief description of the application of the technique to land search. Some advantages and disadvantages, as well as the most common uses of the techniques, are discussed in the guide. The guide does not, however, purport to discuss all aspects of conducting a land search.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
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Designation: F 1633 – 97 (Reapproved 2003)
Standard Guide for
Techniques in Land Search
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1633; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 3.1.4 electronic search, n—technique(s) using electronic
systems or devices to locate a subject(s) or evidence, or both.
1.1 This guide identifies and describes techniques that may
3.1.5 hasty search, v—to send a fast moving, well-trained
be used by individuals or agencies when searching for persons,
crew(s) of searchers to quickly check selected high probability
property, or evidence on land. The application of one or more
area(s).
of these techniques to any particular land search will depend
3.1.6 investigation, n—the systematic collection and analy-
upon the individual circumstances of the search and the
sis of information about the lost or missing subject(s) by
judgment of the person responsible for conducting the search.
interviewing (interrogation) or reviewing records or evidence,
1.2 This guide assists individuals and agencies by providing
or both.
a list of techniques for their consideration during a land search
3.1.7 line search, v—tousesearchersinalinearpattern(s)at
and by providing a brief description of the application of the
specified intervals, to investigate a defined search segment.
technique to land search. Some advantages and disadvantages,
3.1.8 probability of area (POA), n—the probability of a
as well as the most common uses of the techniques, are
subject or clue being in the area or segment being searched.
discussed in the guide.The guide does not, however, purport to
3.1.9 probabilityofdetection(POD),n—theprobabilitythat
discuss all aspects of conducting a land search.
the subject or clue will be detected by the search action if the
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the
subject or clue is in the search area.
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
3.1.10 search dog, n—canine trained in techniques to locate
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
a subject(s) or evidence, or both.
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
3.1.11 search dog crew(s), n—canine and their handler(s)
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
trained in search techniques to locate a subject(s) or evidence,
2. Referenced Documents
or both.
3.1.12 segment (search area), n—a geographic unit within
2.1 ASTM Standard:
the search area established for the purpose of effective and
F 1767 Guide for Forms Used in Search and Rescue
efficient assignment of search resources.
3. Terminology
3.1.13 segmentation, n—the process of partitioning the
search area into segments.
3.1 Definitions:
3.1.14 segmentation, binary, n—to reduce the size of a
3.1.1 attraction, n—to get the attention of lost, missing, or
search area through subdivision into increasingly smaller
stranded subject(s) by sound or visual methods, or both, for
segments.
example, whistle, light, smoke.
3.1.15 tracking, v—to follow a subject(s) footprint(s),
3.1.2 clue awareness, n—to be aware of evidence left by a
track(s), or sign through varying types of terrain.
subject(s) which may help to ascertain their location or
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
direction of travel, or both.
3.2.1 breakage, n—a physical rupture of material or the
3.1.3 confinement, n—the act of limiting the growth of the
surface of material, such as frequently seen when vegetation is
potential search area by minimizing the ability of the subject(s)
crushed or bent by external forces such as the passage of
leaving the search area undetected.
subjects.
3.2.2 bruising, n—changes in the subsurface of vegetation
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F32 on Search and
which generally leaves the surface intact but noticeably differ-
RescueandisthedirectresponsibilityofSubcommitteeF32.02onManagementand
entandistheresultofvegetationbeingcrushedorsqueezedby
Operations.
external forces such as the passage of a subject(s).
Current edition approved Nov. 1, 2003. Published November 2003. Originally
approved in 1995. Last previous edition approved in 1997 as F 1633 - 97.
3.2.3 color change, n—changes in tone or contrast of a
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
surface as a result of a disturbance which causes the disturbed
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
area to appear different from the surroundings. An example of
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website. such a change would be the turning up of sub-soil with more
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
F 1633 – 97 (2003)
moisture than the drier surface soil, thereby creating a darker search options that are available to search managers. Where
pattern in the disturbed area. See also shine. appropriate, the guide identifies these limitations.
3.2.4 disturbance, n—evidence of recent change, displace- 5.3 Theuseofthelistedtechniquesimprovestheprobability
ment, or rearrangement such as dislodged rocks, pebbles, oflocatingalostormissingpersonwhenappliedtolandsearch
twigs, or bruised leaves. Other evidence could include breaks incidents. These techniques may be employed at the discretion
in branches, twigs, or bruised leaves at or above the ground. of and under the direction and control of a land search
3.2.5 flattening, n—when pebbles, twigs, and other objects manager.
are pushed below their natural bed, indicating that something 5.4 Terms used in this guide are not intended to be compre-
very hard such as a sole or hoof of an animal has stepped on hensive, nor are they presumed to be inclusive of all terminol-
them. ogy used in the search function.
3.2.6 scuff, n—a disturbance caused by the dragging of a
6. General Considerations
foot on a surface such as is evidenced by the displacement of
a lichen on a rock. 6.1 Operational factors that are common to any search but
3.2.7 shine, n—an apparent color change in the reflection of not specific to any one phase or element of the operation are
light from surfaces as a result of disturbance to the area. listed in Table 1. Each factor should be considered when
Frequently seen as dew laden grass that has had the moisture
initiating a search for a lost subject(s). Often these consider-
knocked from it as a subject walks through it or as flattened ations can be summarized to a single form such as is given in
grass from foot pressure. This is most easily seen from
the example in Appendix X1.
distances between 5 and 10 m.
7. Land Search Techniques
3.2.8 sign, n—any evidence of external forces acting upon
the environment. Emphasis is placed on sign that indicates the 7.1 Attraction—Method of searching, in which the searcher
passageofthesubject(s)beingsought.Examplesincludeasole
attemptstoestablishcontactwiththesubjectbyaudioorvisual
pattern imbedded in the soil as a sign that a person or shoes means, or both. When the technique is used it is important that
have been there.
the searcher remains stationary for a long enough period of
3.3 Terminology not defined in this guide but referenced in time to be sure the subject will respond if able. This method is
the text can be found in ICS 420, Managing the Search
used when the subject is believed to be responsive. The
4 5
Function, and in Search is an Emergency. subject(s) may or may not be mobile, although mobility
improves the usefulness of the technique in many instances.
4. Summary of Guide
7.1.1 There are many ways of attracting a subject (seeTable
4.1 This guide presents the land search manager with a brief 2). Which method to use depends on a great variety of
conditions that may exist during the search. Some of the
synopsis of various land search techniques that have been
shown to be effective in locating missing subjects or evidence. conditions to be considered are local background noise,
weather, natural and artificial lighting present, topography,
Some known strengths and weaknesses are discussed to assist
thelandsearchmanagerinselectingthemostappropriatesetof time of day/year, and resources available.
7.1.2 Attraction can be used in conjunction with other
techniques for the incident at hand.
4.2 Much of the information in the guide comes from search techniques. When searchers are moving it is important
to stop at various intervals to look and listen for a response.
classroom materials available through the NationalAssociation
Observation and listening posts may be established throughout
for Search and Rescue Managing the Search Function Course
a search area.
and from the Emergency Response Institute’s classroom text
Search is an Emergency.
TABLE 1 General Considerations for Land Search
5. Significance and Use
Subject Considerations: number of subjects
age
5.1 Lost persons are at risk of injury or death from extended
physical condition and abilities
periods of isolation, either mental, physical, or both. Their
mental condition and attitude
inability to solve immediate problems requires that search and
knowledge and training
clothing
rescue (SAR) personnel use the most efficient and effective
equipment
techniques to resolve the lost person’s situation and to mini-
self-rescue likelihood
mize the risks of injury or death.
Terrain Considerations: difficulty of travel
5.2 Searching for immobile or unresponsive subjects, in- difficulty of access
remoteness
cluding those deceased, places further limitations upon the
exposure to object hazards
Weather Considerations: recent past
present
future
International Fire Service Training Association, Incident Command System
Time Considerations: last seen
Field Operations Guide, ICS 420 available from the International Fire Service
remaining light, if any
Training Association, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University,
sign age/longevity
Stillwater, OK 74078.
Resource Considerations: available personnel
Managing the Search Function, Third Edition, 1987. Available from the
available equipment
National Association for Search and Rescue, P.O. Box 3709, Fairfax, VA 22038.
knowledge, training and experience
LaValla, Rick and Stoffel, Skip. 1987. Search is an Emergency, Emergency available air-evac assets
Response Institute, 4537 Foxhall Drive, Olympia, Washington 98506.
F 1633 – 97 (2003)
TABLE 2 Examples of Attraction TABLE 3 Electronic Search Techniques
Visual Audio Subject Status/Technique Examples
lights horns Not Specially Equipped, Not
flares sirens Responsive
fires voice infrared thermal imaging helicopter Forward Looking Infrared
(FLIR)
beacons bells
strobes firearms infrared illumination
smoke PA systems light amplification starlight or sniper scope
balloons whistles acoustic amplification
magnetometer
Not Specially Equipped,
Responsive
all of the above
7.2 Confinement—A search technique that presumes the
seismic sensing
subject’s ability to leave a search area can be prevented or at
acoustic interrogation loudspeaker, acoustic amplifier for
listening
least detected. It is most useful when several items of pertinent
Specially Equipped, Not
information are known, thereby enabling the subject’s rate of
Responsive
travel to be estimated. This information includes the point last
radio direction finding automatically activated Emergency
Locator Transmitter (ELT)
seen (PLS), the time the person became lost, and the mobility
avalanche beacon
of the subject keeping in mind that weather or darkness may
transponder interrogation RECCOY personnel locator
further limit the subject’s mobility.
Specially Equipped, Responsive
all of the above
7.2.1 Confinement is less effective when the search area is
radio direction finding manually activated transmitter
not well defined or is extremely large. If search tools such as
direct radio/telephone
string lines or other temporary boundaries must be built, it will
communication
require much time and manpower, thereby increasing the
chances that the subject(s) may leave the search area undetec-
ted.
course of investigation, information is gathered regarding two
7.2.2 Terrain features may be conducive to the confinement
elements of lost persons. The first involves subject behavior
technique if the borders of the search segment are well defined
and survivability profiles within the boundaries of the search
by natural or man-made boundaries. Under these circum-
area. The second pertains to the potential whereabouts and
stances,boundariestendtodirectorrestrictthesubject’stravel.
plightofmissingpersonswhoarepotentiallyoutsidethesearch
5 7
7.3 Electronic Search—The use of electronic systems or
area (staged incident or “bastard” search ). This could be
devices to locate a subject(s) or evidence, or both. Which
information needed by criminal investigators should the search
electronic search techniques can be used depends upon what
become criminal in nature.
equipment is available, whether or not the subject or evidence
7.5.1 Intelligence is gathered from interviews with persons
is specially equipped (for example, RECCOy, ELT), and
otherthanthesubject(s),reviewofrecords,andexaminationof
whether or not the subject(s) are responsive. Table 3 summa-
evidence found during the course of the search. Relatives,
rizes the suitability of the various techniques to specific
friends, associates, and persons in the search area are prime
circumstances of a search.
candidates for interviews. Record reviews might include use
7.3.1 All of these methods, except for infrared illumination
permits, rental agreements, Department of Motor Vehicles,
and light amplification, which can be used only at night, can be
criminal history, and personal records left by the missing
useddayornight.Mostinfraredthermalimagingsystemswork
subject(s). Evidence examination may include vehicles, camp-
only at night, but systems that produce color images can be
sites, and other items found in the search area.
used during the day. All the methods can be used in any
7.5.2 Many agencies have found it desirable to develop
weather or terrain, but the acoustic and seismic techniques
standardized missing subject forms similar to the examples
need a relatively quiet environment to function properly.
given in Guide F 1767. The forms help remind investigators of
7.4 Hasty Search—A planned, rapid, non-thorough search,
the types of information to be gathered as well as to document
ofhighprobabilityareas,bysma
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