ISO 180:2023
(Main)Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
This document specifies a method for determining the Izod impact strength of plastics under defined conditions. A number of different types of specimen and test configurations are defined. Different test parameters are specified according to the type of material, the type of test specimen and the type of notch. The method is used to investigate the behaviour of specified types of specimen under the impact conditions defined and for estimating the brittleness or toughness of specimens within the limitations inherent in the test conditions.
Plastiques — Détermination de la résistance au choc Izod
Le présent document spécifie une méthode pour la détermination de la résistance au choc Izod des plastiques dans des conditions définies. De nombreux types d’éprouvettes et de configurations d’essai différents sont définis. Divers paramètres d’essai sont spécifiés selon le type de matière, le type d’éprouvette et le type d’entaille. La présente méthode est utilisée pour l’étude du comportement des types d’éprouvettes spécifiés soumises à des conditions de choc définies et pour l’estimation de la fragilité ou de la ténacité des éprouvettes dans les limites inhérentes aux conditions d’essai.
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INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 180
Fifth edition
2023-06
Plastics — Determination of Izod
impact strength
Plastiques — Détermination de la résistance au choc Izod
Reference number
ISO 180:2023(E)
© ISO 2023
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ISO 180:2023(E)
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© ISO 2023
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on
the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address below
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Published in Switzerland
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ISO 180:2023(E)
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 Principle . 2
5 Apparatus . 2
5.1 Test machine . 2
5.2 Micrometers and gauges . 3
6 Test specimens . 3
6.1 Preparation . 3
6.1.1 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 3
6.1.2 Sheets . 6
6.1.3 Long-fibre-reinforced materials . . 6
6.1.4 Checking . . 6
6.1.5 Notching . 6
6.2 Anisotropy . 7
6.3 Shape and dimensions . 7
6.3.1 General . 7
6.3.2 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 7
6.3.3 Sheet materials, including long-fibre-reinforced materials . 7
6.4 Number of test specimens . 8
6.5 Conditioning. 8
7 Procedure .8
8 Calculation and expression of results . 9
8.1 Unnotched specimens . 9
8.2 Notched specimens . 9
8.3 Statistical parameters. 9
8.4 Significant figures. 9
9 Precision . 9
10 Test report .10
Annex A (informative) Precision statement .12
Bibliography .14
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ISO 180:2023(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO document should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
ISO draws attention to the possibility that the implementation of this document may involve the use
of (a) patent(s). ISO takes no position concerning the evidence, validity or applicability of any claimed
patent rights in respect thereof. As of the date of publication of this document, ISO had not received
notice of (a) patent(s) which may be required to implement this document. However, implementers are
cautioned that this may not represent the latest information, which may be obtained from the patent
database available at www.iso.org/patents. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all
such patent rights.
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to
the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see
www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 61, Plastics, Subcommittee SC 2,
Mechanical behavior, in collaboration with the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Technical
Committee CEN/TC 249, Plastics, in accordance with the Agreement on technical cooperation between
ISO and CEN (Vienna Agreement).
This fifth edition cancels and replaces the fourth edition (ISO 180:2019), which has been technically
revised.
The main changes are as follows:
— results of an interlaboratory test for unnotched specimens (see Annex A) have been added;
— reference to standard ISO 16012 (see the Bibliography and 5.2) has been added;
— symbols used in Formulae (1) and (2) have been reviewed and updated;
— method designation in Clause 10 b) have been reviewed and updated.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html.
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ISO 180:2023(E)
Introduction
The Izod impact strength determination method is suitable for use with the following range of materials:
— rigid thermoplastic moulding and extrusion materials, including filled and reinforced compounds
in addition to unfilled types; rigid thermoplastics sheets;
— rigid thermosetting moulding materials, including filled and reinforced compounds; rigid
thermosetting sheets, including laminates;
— fibre-reinforced thermosetting and thermoplastic composites incorporating unidirectional or
non-unidirectional reinforcements such as mat, woven fabrics, woven rovings, chopped strands,
combination and hybrid reinforcements, rovings and milled fibres and sheet made from pre-
impregnated materials (prepregs);
— thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers.
The method is not normally suitable for use with rigid cellular materials and sandwich structures
containing cellular material. Notched specimens are also not normally used for long-fibre-reinforced
composites or thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers.
The method is suited to the use of specimens which can be either moulded to the chosen dimensions,
machined from the central portion of a standard multipurpose test specimen (see ISO 20753) or
machined from finished or semi-finished products such as mouldings, laminates and extruded or cast
sheet.
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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 180:2023(E)
Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
1 Scope
This document specifies a method for determining the Izod impact strength of plastics under defined
conditions. A number of different types of specimen and test configurations are defined. Different test
parameters are specified according to the type of material, the type of test specimen and the type of
notch.
The method is used to investigate the behaviour of specified types of specimen under the impact
conditions defined and for estimating the brittleness or toughness of specimens within the limitations
inherent in the test conditions.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 291, Plastics — Standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing
ISO 293, Plastics — Compression moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials
ISO 294-1, Plastics — Injection moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials — Part 1: General
principles, and moulding of multipurpose and bar test specimens
ISO 295, Plastics — Compression moulding of test specimens of thermosetting materials
ISO 1268 (all parts), Fibre-reinforced plastics — Methods of producing test plates.
ISO 2818, Plastics — Preparation of test specimens by machining
ISO 10724-1, Plastics — Injection moulding of test specimens of thermosetting powder moulding compounds
(PMCs) — Part 1: General principles and moulding of multipurpose test specimens
ISO 13802, Plastics — Verification of pendulum impact-testing machines — Charpy, Izod and tensile
impact-testing
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminology databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https:// www .electropedia .org/
3.1
Izod impact strength of unnotched specimen
a
iU
impact energy absorbed in breaking an unnotched specimen, referred to the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen
2
Note 1 to entry: It is expressed in kilojoules per square metre (kJ/m ).
1
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ISO 180:2023(E)
3.2
Izod impact strength of notched specimen
a
iN
impact energy absorbed in breaking a notched specimen, referred to the original cross-sectional area
of the specimen at the notch, with the pendulum striking the face containing the notch
2
Note 1 to entry: It is expressed in kilojoules per square metre (kJ/m ).
3.3
parallel direction of blow
p
impact with the direction of blow parallel to the plane of reinforcement
Note 1 to entry: The direction of the blow in the Izod test is usually “edgewise parallel” (ep) (see Figure 1).
3.4
normal direction of blow
n
impact with the direction of blow normal to the plane of reinforcement
Note 1 to entry: This kind of impact is not usually used with the Izod test, but is indicated for the sake of
completion (see also Figure 1).
4 Principle
The test specimen, supported as a vertical cantilever beam, is broken by a single impact of a striker,
with the line of impact a fixed distance from the specimen clamp and, in the case of notched specimens,
from the centreline of the notch (see Figure 2).
The method specifies preferred dimensions for the test specimen. Tests which are carried out on
specimens of different dimensions or with different notches, or specimens which are prepared under
different conditions, may produce results which are not comparable. Other factors, such as the energy
capacity of the apparatus, its impact velocity and the conditioning of the specimens can also influence
the results. Consequently, when comparative data are required, these factors are to be carefully
controlled and recorded.
The method is not intended to be used as a source of data for design calculations. Information on the
typical behaviour of a material can be obtained, however, by testing at different temperatures, by
varying the notch radius and/or the thickness and by testing specimens prepared under different
conditions.
5 Apparatus
5.1 Test machine
5.1.1 The principles, characteristics and verification of suitable test machines are detailed in
ISO 13802. ISO 13802 describes partial verification and full verification. In the case of full verification,
some items are difficult to verify when the apparatus is assembled. Such verifications are assumed to
be incumbent on the manufacturer.
5.1.2 Some plastics are sensitive to clamping pressure. When testing such materials, a means of
standardizing the clamping force shall be used and the clamping force shall be recorded in the test
report. The clamping force can be controlled by using a calibrated torque wrench or a pneumatic or
hydraulic device on the vice clamping screw.
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ISO 180:2023(E)
5.2 Micrometers and gauges
Micrometers and gauges capable of measuring the essential dimensions of test specimens to an accuracy
of 0,02 mm are required. For measuring the dimension b of notched specimens, the micrometer shall
N
be fitted with an anvil of width 2 mm to 3 mm and of suitable profile to fit the shape of the notch. For
general information on the determination of test specimen dimensions, see ISO 16012.
6 Test specimens
6.1 Preparation
6.1.1 Moulding and extrusion compounds
Specimens shall be prepared in accordance with the relevant material specification. When none
exists, and unless otherwise specified, specimens shall be either directly compression-moulded or
injection-moulded from the material in accordance with ISO 293, ISO 294-1, ISO 295 or ISO 10724-1
as appropriate, or machined in accordance with ISO 2818 from sheet that has been compression- or
injection-moulded from the compound. Specimens can also be cut from multipurpose test specimens
complying with ISO 20753:—, type A1.
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ISO 180:2023(E)
...
NORME ISO
INTERNATIONALE 180
Cinquième édition
2023-06
Plastiques — Détermination de la
résistance au choc Izod
Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
Numéro de référence
ISO 180:2023(F)
© ISO 2023
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ISO 180:2023(F)
DOCUMENT PROTÉGÉ PAR COPYRIGHT
© ISO 2023
Tous droits réservés. Sauf prescription différente ou nécessité dans le contexte de sa mise en œuvre, aucune partie de cette
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être demandée à l’ISO à l’adresse ci-après ou au comité membre de l’ISO dans le pays du demandeur.
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Publié en Suisse
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ISO 180:2023(F)
Sommaire Page
Avant-propos .iv
Introduction .v
1 Domaine d’application . 1
2 Références normatives .1
3 Termes et définitions . 1
4 Principe. 2
5 Appareillage . 3
5.1 Machine d’essai . 3
5.2 Micromètres et comparateurs . 3
6 Éprouvettes. 3
6.1 Préparation . 3
6.1.1 Compositions pour moulage et extrusion . 3
6.1.2 Feuilles . 6
6.1.3 Matériaux renforcés par de longues fibres . 6
6.1.4 Contrôle . 6
6.1.5 Préparation de l’entaille . . . 6
6.2 Anisotropie . 6
6.3 Forme et dimensions . 6
6.3.1 Généralités . 6
6.3.2 Compositions pour moulage et extrusion . 7
6.3.3 Matériaux sous forme de feuille, y compris les matériaux renforcés par de
longues fibres . 7
6.4 Nombre d’éprouvettes . 7
6.5 Conditionnement . 7
7 Mode opératoire . 8
8 Calcul et expression des résultats .9
8.1 Éprouvettes non entaillées . 9
8.2 Éprouvettes entaillées . 9
8.3 Paramètres statistiques . 9
8.4 Chiffres significatifs . 9
9 Fidélité . 9
10 Rapport d’essai . 9
Annexe A (informative) Données de fidélité .12
Bibliographie .14
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ISO 180:2023(F)
Avant-propos
L'ISO (Organisation internationale de normalisation) est une fédération mondiale d'organismes
nationaux de normalisation (comités membres de l'ISO). L'élaboration des Normes internationales est
en général confiée aux comités techniques de l'ISO. Chaque comité membre intéressé par une étude
a le droit de faire partie du comité technique créé à cet effet. Les organisations internationales,
gouvernementales et non gouvernementales, en liaison avec l'ISO participent également aux travaux.
L'ISO collabore étroitement avec la Commission électrotechnique internationale (IEC) en ce qui
concerne la normalisation électrotechnique.
Les procédures utilisées pour élaborer le présent document et celles destinées à sa mise à jour sont
décrites dans les Directives ISO/IEC, Partie 1. Il convient, en particulier, de prendre note des différents
critères d'approbation requis pour les différents types de documents ISO. Le présent document a
été rédigé conformément aux règles de rédaction données dans les Directives ISO/IEC, Partie 2 (voir
www.iso.org/directives).
L’ISO attire l’attention sur le fait que la mise en application du présent document peut entraîner
l’utilisation d’un ou de plusieurs brevets. L’ISO ne prend pas position quant à la preuve, à la validité
et à l’applicabilité de tout droit de brevet revendiqué à cet égard. À la date de publication du présent
document, l’ISO n'avait pas reçu notification qu’un ou plusieurs brevets pouvaient être nécessaires à sa
mise en application. Toutefois, il y a lieu d’avertir les responsables de la mise en application du présent
document que des informations plus récentes sont susceptibles de figurer dans la base de données de
brevets, disponible à l'adresse www.iso.org/brevets. L’ISO ne saurait être tenue pour responsable de ne
pas avoir identifié tout ou partie de tels droits de propriété.
Les appellations commerciales éventuellement mentionnées dans le présent document sont données
pour information, par souci de commodité, à l’intention des utilisateurs et ne sauraient constituer un
engagement.
Pour une explication de la nature volontaire des normes, la signification des termes et expressions
spécifiques de l'ISO liés à l'évaluation de la conformité, ou pour toute information au sujet de l'adhésion
de l'ISO aux principes de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) concernant les obstacles
techniques au commerce (OTC), voir www.iso.org/avant-propos.
Le présent document a été élaboré par le comité technique ISO/TC 61, Plastiques, sous-comité SC 2,
Comportement mécanique, en collaboration avec le comité technique CEN/TC 249, Plastiques, du Comité
européen de normalisation (CEN) conformément à l’Accord de coopération technique entre l’ISO et le
CEN (Accord de Vienne).
Cette cinquième édition annule et remplace la quatrième édition (ISO 180:2019), qui a fait l’objet d’une
révision technique.
Les principales modifications sont les suivantes:
— les résultats d’un essai interlaboratoires sur des éprouvettes non entaillées (voir l’Annexe A) ont été
ajoutés;
— une référence à la norme ISO 16012 (voir la Bibliographie et 5.2) a été ajoutée;
— les symboles utilisés dans les Formules (1) et (2) ont été revus et mis à jour;
— la désignation de la méthode à l’Article 10 b) a été revue et mise à jour.
Il convient que l’utilisateur adresse tout retour d’information ou toute question concernant le présent
document à l’organisme national de normalisation de son pays. Une liste exhaustive desdits organismes
se trouve à l’adresse www.iso.org/fr/members.html.
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ISO 180:2023(F)
Introduction
La présente méthode de détermination de la résistance au choc Izod est applicable à la gamme des
matériaux suivants:
— matières thermoplastiques rigides pour moulage et extrusion, y compris les compositions chargées
et renforcées en plus des types non chargés; feuilles thermoplastiques rigides;
— matières thermodurcissables rigides pour moulage, y compris les compositions chargées et
renforcées; feuilles thermodurcissables rigides, y compris les stratifiés;
— composites thermoplastiques et thermodurcissables renforcés de fibres comportant des renforts
unidirectionnels et multidirectionnels tels que mats, tissus, tissus stratifils, fils coupés, combinaisons
de renforcements et hybrides, stratifils et fibres broyées; feuilles réalisées à partir de matières
préimprégnées (préimprégnés);
— polymères à cristaux liquides thermotropes.
La présente méthode ne convient normalement pas à l’utilisation de matériaux alvéolaires rigides et de
structures sandwichs contenant des matériaux alvéolaires. De même, les éprouvettes entaillées ne sont
normalement pas utilisées pour les composites renforcés de longues fibres ou pour des polymères à
cristaux liquides thermotropes.
La présente méthode est adaptée à l’utilisation d’éprouvettes qui peuvent être moulées aux dimensions
choisies, usinées à partir de la partie centrale de l’éprouvette normalisée à usages multiples (voir
l’ISO 20753) ou encore usinées à partir de produits finis ou semi-finis, tels que pièces moulées, stratifiés
et feuilles extrudées ou coulées.
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NORME INTERNATIONALE ISO 180:2023(F)
Plastiques — Détermination de la résistance au choc Izod
1 Domaine d’application
Le présent document spécifie une méthode pour la détermination de la résistance au choc Izod des
plastiques dans des conditions définies. De nombreux types d’éprouvettes et de configurations d’essai
différents sont définis. Divers paramètres d’essai sont spécifiés selon le type de matière, le type
d’éprouvette et le type d’entaille.
La présente méthode est utilisée pour l’étude du comportement des types d’éprouvettes spécifiés
soumises à des conditions de choc définies et pour l’estimation de la fragilité ou de la ténacité des
éprouvettes dans les limites inhérentes aux conditions d’essai.
2 Références normatives
Les documents suivants sont cités dans le texte de sorte qu’ils constituent, pour tout ou partie de leur
contenu, des exigences du présent document. Pour les références datées, seule l’édition citée s’applique.
Pour les références non datées, la dernière édition du document de référence s'applique (y compris les
éventuels amendements).
ISO 291, Plastiques — Atmosphères normales de conditionnement et d'essai
ISO 293, Plastiques — Moulage par compression des éprouvettes en matières thermoplastiques
ISO 294-1, Plastiques — Moulage par injection des éprouvettes de matériaux thermoplastiques — Partie 1:
Principes généraux, et moulage des éprouvettes à usages multiples et des barreaux
ISO 295, Plastiques — Moulage par compression des éprouvettes de matériaux thermodurcissables
ISO 1268 (toutes les parties), Plastiques renforcés de fibres — Méthodes de fabrication de plaques d’essai
ISO 2818, Plastiques — Préparation des éprouvettes par usinage
ISO 10724-1, Plastiques — Moulage par injection d'éprouvettes en compositions de poudre à mouler (PMC)
thermodurcissables — Partie 1: Principes généraux et moulage d'éprouvettes à usages multiples
ISO 13802, Plastiques — Vérification des machines d'essai de choc pendulaire — Essais de choc Charpy,
Izod et de choc-traction
3 Termes et définitions
Pour les besoins du présent document, les termes et définitions suivants s’appliquent.
L’ISO et l’IEC tiennent à jour des bases de données terminologiques destinées à être utilisées en
normalisation, consultables aux adresses suivantes:
— ISO Online browsing platform: disponible à l’adresse https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: disponible à l’adresse https:// www .electropedia .org/
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ISO 180:2023(F)
3.1
résistance au choc Izod d’éprouvettes non entaillées
a
iU
énergie de choc absorbée par la rupture d’une éprouvette non entaillée rapportée à la section droite
initiale de l’éprouvette
2
Note 1 à l'article: Elle est exprimée en kilojoules par mètre carré (kJ/m ).
3.2
résistance au choc Izod d’éprouvettes entaillées
a
iN
énergie de choc absorbée par la rupture d’une éprouvette entaillée rapportée à la section droite initiale
de l’éprouvette au niveau de l’entaille, le pendule percutant la face contenant l’entaille
2
Note 1 à l'article: Elle est exprimée en kilojoules par mètre carré (kJ/m ).
3.3
direction de percussion parallèle
p
impact avec direction de la percussion parallèle au plan de
renforcement
Note 1 à l'article: Dans l’essai Izod, la direction de la percussion est normalement «position debout parallèle» (ep)
(voir la Figure 1).
3.4
direction de percussion normale
n
impact avec direction de la percussion perpendiculaire au plan
de renforcement
Note 1 à l'article: Ce type de choc n’est normalement pas utilisé pour l’essai Izod, mais il est indiqué dans un souci
d’exhaustivité (voir aussi la Figure 1).
4 Principe
L’éprouvette, supportée comme une poutre en console verticale, est rompue par un seul choc de
percuteur, la ligne de choc étant située à distance fixe du serrage de l’éprouvette, et en cas d’éprouvette
entaillée, de l’axe de l’entaille (voir la Figure 2).
La présente méthode spécifie les dimensions recommandées pour l’éprouvette. Des essais réalisés avec
des éprouvettes de dimensions différentes ou avec des entailles différentes, ou avec des éprouvettes
préparées dans des conditions différentes, peuvent donner des résultats qui ne sont pas comparables.
D’autres facteurs, tels que la capacité énergétique de l’appareillage, sa vitesse de percussion et le
conditionnement des éprouvettes, peuvent également avoir une répercussion sur les résultats. Par
conséquent, lorsque des résultats comparatifs sont requis, ces facteurs doivent être soigneusement
contrôlés et enregistrés.
La présente méthode n’est pas destinée à être utilisée comme source de données pour les calculs à
effectuer lors de la conception. Cependant, des informations sur le comportement type de la matière
peuvent être obtenues en effectuant l’essai à différentes températures, en faisant varier le rayon de
l’entaille et/ou l’épaisseur, et en utilisant des éprouvettes préparées dans des conditions différentes.
2
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ISO 180:2023(F)
5 Appareillage
5.1 Machine d’essai
5.1.1 Les dispositions relatives aux principes, aux caractéristiques et à la vérification des machines
d’essai appropriées sont détaillées dans l’ISO 13802. L’ISO 13802 décrit la vérification partielle et la
vérification complète. Dans le cas d’une vérification complète, certains éléments sont difficiles à vérifier
une fois que l’appareil est assemblé. On considère que ces vérifications incombent au fabricant.
5.1.2 Certains plastiques sont sensibles à la pression de serrage. Lors de l’essai de ces matières, un
dispositif d’étalonnage de la force de serrage doit être utilisé et cette dernière doit être notée dans le
rapport d’essai. Le contrôle de la force de serrage peut s’effectuer au moyen d’une clé dynamométrique
étalonnée ou d’un appareil pneumatique ou hydraulique monté sur la vis du dispositif de serrage.
5.2 Micromètres et comparateurs
Les micromètres et comparateurs doivent pouvoir mesurer les principales dimensions des éprouvettes
avec une exactitude de 0,02 mm. Pour mesurer la dimension b d’une éprouvette entaillée, le micromètre
N
doit être équipé d’une enclume ayant une largeur de 2 mm à 3 mm et un profil convenable pour épouser
la forme de l’entaille. Pour des informations générales sur la détermination des dimensions des
éprouvettes, voir l'ISO 16012.
6 Éprouvettes
6.1 Préparation
6.1.1 Compositions pour moulage et extrusion
Les éprouvettes doivent être préparées conformément à la spécification relative au matériau concerné.
En l’absence de spécification, et sauf indication contraire, les éprouvettes doivent être soit directement
moulées par compression ou injection à partir de la matière conformément à l’ISO 293, l’ISO 294-1,
l’ISO 295 ou l’ISO 10724-1, selon le cas, soit usinées conformément à l’ISO 2818 à partir d’une feuille
ayant été moulée par compression ou injection et provenant de la composition. Les éprouvettes
peuvent également être prélevées dans des éprouvettes à usages multiples conformes au type A1 de
l’ISO 20753:—.
3
© ISO 2023 – Tous droits réservés
---------------------- Page: 8 ----------------------
ISO 180:2023(F)
Légende
1 direction de percussion e debout
2 mors de serrage mobile f à plat
3 mors de serrage fixe n normale
p parallèle
NOTE 1 La position debout (e) et à plat (f) indique la direction de percussion par rapport à l’épaisseur h et à la
largeur de l’éprouvette b. Normale (n) et parallèle (p) indiquent la direction de percussion par rapport au plan du
stratifié.
NOTE 2 L’essai Izod habituel s’effectue en «position debout parallèle». Lorsque h = b, la direct
...
20222023-02-1006
ISO/DISFDIS 180:20222023(E)
ISO TC 61/SC 2/WG 3
Secretariat: SAC
Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
Plastiques — Détermination de la résistance au choc Izod
---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
© ISO 20222023
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation,
no part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on the internet or an intranet,
without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address
below or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
ISO copyright office
CP 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11
Email: copyright@iso.org
Website: www.iso.orgwww.iso.org
Published in Switzerland
ii © ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 2 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Contents
Foreword . iv
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 2
4 Principle . 3
5 Apparatus . 3
5.1 Test machine . 3
5.2 Micrometers and gauges . 3
6 Test specimens . 3
6.1 Preparation . 3
6.1.1 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 3
6.1.2 Sheets . 5
6.1.3 Long-fibre-reinforced materials . 6
6.1.4 Checking . 6
6.1.5 Notching. 6
6.2 Anisotropy . 6
6.3 Shape and dimensions . 6
6.3.1 General . 6
6.3.2 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 7
6.3.3 Sheet materials, including long-fibre-reinforced materials . 7
6.4 Number of test specimens . 7
6.5 Conditioning . 7
7 Procedure . 7
8 Calculation and expression of results . 8
8.1 Unnotched specimens . 8
8.2 Notched specimens . 8
8.3 Statistical parameters . 8
8.4 Significant figures . 9
9 Precision . 9
10 Test report . 9
Annex A (informative) Precision statement . 11
A.1 General . 11
A.2 Concept of r and R . 11
Bibliography . 14
Foreword . v
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved iii
---------------------- Page: 3 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Introduction . vii
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 Principle . 2
5 Apparatus . 3
5.1 Test machine . 3
5.2 Micrometers and gauges . 3
6 Test specimens . 3
6.1 Preparation . 3
6.1.1 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 3
6.1.2 Sheets. 9
6.1.3 Long-fibre-reinforced materials . 9
6.1.4 Checking . 9
6.1.5 Notching . 10
6.2 Anisotropy . 10
6.3 Shape and dimensions . 10
6.3.1 General . 10
6.3.2 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 10
6.3.3 Sheet materials, including long-fibre-reinforced materials . 11
6.4 Number of test specimens . 11
6.5 Conditioning . 11
7 Procedure . 11
8 Calculation and expression of results . 12
8.1 Unnotched specimens . 12
8.2 Notched specimens . 13
8.3 Statistical parameters . 13
8.4 Significant figures . 13
9 Precision . 13
10 Test report . 13
Annex A (informative) Precision statement . 16
Bibliography . 19
iv © ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 4 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national
standards bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally
carried out through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a
technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee.
International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in
the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all
matters of electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directiveswww.iso.org/directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patentswww.iso.org/patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see
www.iso.org/iso/foreword.htmlwww.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 61, Plastics, Subcommittee SC 2,
Mechanical behavior, in collaboration with the European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
Technical Committee CEN/TC 249, Plastics, in accordance with the Agreement on technical cooperation
between ISO and CEN (Vienna Agreement).
This fifth edition cancels and replaces the fourth edition (ISO 180:2019), which has been technically
revised.
The main changes are as follows:
— results of a round robinan interlaboratory test for unnotched specimens (see Annex A) have been
added;
— reference to standard ISO 16012 (see the Bibliography and subclause 5.2) has been added;
— symbols used in Formulae (1) and (2) have been reviewed and updated;
— method designation in Clause 10 b) have been reviewed and updated.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at
www.iso.org/members.htmlwww.iso.org/members.html.
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved v
---------------------- Page: 5 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
vi © ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 6 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Introduction
The Izod impact strength determination method is suitable for use with the following range of
materials:
— rigid thermoplastic moulding and extrusion materials, including filled and reinforced compounds in
addition to unfilled types; rigid thermoplastics sheets;
— rigid thermosetting moulding materials, including filled and reinforced compounds; rigid
thermosetting sheets, including laminates;
— fibre-reinforced thermosetting and thermoplastic composites incorporating unidirectional or non-
unidirectional reinforcements such as mat, woven fabrics, woven rovings, chopped strands,
combination and hybrid reinforcements, rovings and milled fibres and sheet made from pre-
impregnated materials (prepregs);
— thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers.
The method is not normally suitable for use with rigid cellular materials and sandwich structures
containing cellular material. Notched specimens are also not normally used for long-fibre-reinforced
composites or thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers.
The method is suited to the use of specimens which can be either moulded to the chosen dimensions,
machined from the central portion of a standard multipurpose test specimen (see ISO 20753) or
machined from finished or semi-finished products such as mouldings, laminates and extruded or cast
sheet.
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved vii
---------------------- Page: 7 ----------------------
FINAL DRAFT INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
1 Scope
This document specifies a method for determining the Izod impact strength of plastics under defined
conditions. A number of different types of specimen and test configurations are defined. Different test
parameters are specified according to the type of material, the type of test specimen and the type of
notch.
The method is used to investigate the behaviour of specified types of specimen under the impact
conditions defined and for estimating the brittleness or toughness of specimens within the limitations
inherent in the test conditions.
32 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 291, Plastics — Standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing
ISO 293, Plastics — Compression moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials
ISO 294-1, Plastics — Injection moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials — Part 1: General
principles, and moulding of multipurpose and bar test specimens
ISO 295, Plastics — Compression moulding of test specimens of thermosetting materials
ISO 1268 (all parts), Fibre-reinforced plastics — Methods of producing test plates.
ISO 2818, Plastics — Preparation of test specimens by machining
ISO 10724-1, Plastics — Injection moulding of test specimens of thermosetting powder moulding
compounds (PMCs) — Part 1: General principles and moulding of multipurpose test specimens
ISO 13802, Plastics — Verification of pendulum impact-testing machines — Charpy, Izod and tensile
impact-testing
ISO 20753, Plastics — Test specimens
43 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved 1
---------------------- Page: 8 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
ISO and IEC maintain terminology databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https://www.iso.org/obphttps://www.iso.org/obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https://www.electropedia.org/https://www.electropedia.org/
3.1
Izod impact strength of unnotched specimen
a
iU
impact energy absorbed in breaking an unnotched specimen, referred to the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen
2
Note 1 to entry: It is expressed in kilojoules per square metre (kJ/m ).
3.2
Izod impact strength of notched specimen
a
iN
impact energy absorbed in breaking a notched specimen, referred to the original cross-sectional area of
the specimen at the notch, with the pendulum striking the face containing the notch
2
Note 1 to entry: It is expressed in kilojoules per square metre (kJ/m ).
3.3
parallel -direction of blow
p
impact with the direction of blow parallel to the plane of reinforcement
Note 1 to entry: The direction of the blow in the Izod test is usually “edgewise parallel” (ep) (see Figure 1).
3.4
normal direction of blow
n
impact with the direction of blow normal to the plane of reinforcement
Note 1 to entry: This kind of impact is not usually used with the Izod test, but is indicated for the sake of
completion (see also Figure 1).
54 Principle
The test specimen, supported as a vertical cantilever beam, is broken by a single impact of a striker,
with the line of impact a fixed distance from the specimen clamp and, in the case of notched specimens,
from the centreline of the notch (see Figure 2).
The method specifies preferred dimensions for the test specimen. Tests which are carried out on
specimens of different dimensions or with different notches, or specimens which are prepared under
different conditions, may produce results which are not comparable. Other factors, such as the energy
capacity of the apparatus, its impact velocity and the conditioning of the specimens can also influence
the results. Consequently, when comparative data are required, these factors are to be carefully
controlled and recorded.
The method is not intended to be used as a source of data for design calculations. Information on the
typical behaviour of a material can be obtained, however, by testing at different temperatures, by
2 © ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 9 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
varying the notch radius and/or the thickness and by testing specimens prepared under different
conditions.
75 Apparatus
7.15.1 Test machine
5.1.1 The principles, characteristics and verification of suitable test machines are detailed in
ISO 13802. ISO 13802 describes partial verification and full verification. In the case of full verification,
some items are difficult to verify when the apparatus is assembled. Such verifications are assumed to
...
FINAL
INTERNATIONAL ISO/FDIS
DRAFT
STANDARD 180
ISO/TC 61/SC 2
Plastics — Determination of Izod
Secretariat: SAC
impact strength
Voting begins on:
2023-02-20
Plastiques — Détermination de la résistance au choc Izod
Voting terminates on:
2023-04-17
ISO/CEN PARALLEL PROCESSING
RECIPIENTS OF THIS DRAFT ARE INVITED TO
SUBMIT, WITH THEIR COMMENTS, NOTIFICATION
OF ANY RELEVANT PATENT RIGHTS OF WHICH
THEY ARE AWARE AND TO PROVIDE SUPPOR TING
DOCUMENTATION.
IN ADDITION TO THEIR EVALUATION AS
Reference number
BEING ACCEPTABLE FOR INDUSTRIAL, TECHNO-
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
LOGICAL, COMMERCIAL AND USER PURPOSES,
DRAFT INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS MAY ON
OCCASION HAVE TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE
LIGHT OF THEIR POTENTIAL TO BECOME STAN-
DARDS TO WHICH REFERENCE MAY BE MADE IN
NATIONAL REGULATIONS. © ISO 2023
---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
FINAL
INTERNATIONAL ISO/FDIS
DRAFT
STANDARD 180
ISO/TC 61/SC 2
Plastics — Determination of Izod
Secretariat: SAC
impact strength
Voting begins on:
Plastiques — Détermination de la résistance au choc Izod
Voting terminates on:
COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT
© ISO 2023
ISO/CEN PARALLEL PROCESSING
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on
the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address below
or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
RECIPIENTS OF THIS DRAFT ARE INVITED TO
ISO copyright office
SUBMIT, WITH THEIR COMMENTS, NOTIFICATION
OF ANY RELEVANT PATENT RIGHTS OF WHICH
CP 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
THEY ARE AWARE AND TO PROVIDE SUPPOR TING
CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
DOCUMENTATION.
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11
IN ADDITION TO THEIR EVALUATION AS
Reference number
Email: copyright@iso.org
BEING ACCEPTABLE FOR INDUSTRIAL, TECHNO
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Website: www.iso.org
LOGICAL, COMMERCIAL AND USER PURPOSES,
DRAFT INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS MAY ON
Published in Switzerland
OCCASION HAVE TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE
LIGHT OF THEIR POTENTIAL TO BECOME STAN
DARDS TO WHICH REFERENCE MAY BE MADE IN
ii
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
NATIONAL REGULATIONS. © ISO 2023
---------------------- Page: 2 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 Principle . 2
5 Apparatus . 2
5.1 Test machine . 2
5.2 Micrometers and gauges . 3
6 Test specimens . 3
6.1 Preparation . 3
6.1.1 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 3
6.1.2 Sheets . 6
6.1.3 Long-fibre-reinforced materials . . 6
6.1.4 Checking . . 6
6.1.5 Notching . 6
6.2 Anisotropy . 7
6.3 Shape and dimensions . 7
6.3.1 General . 7
6.3.2 Moulding and extrusion compounds . 7
6.3.3 Sheet materials, including long-fibre-reinforced materials . 7
6.4 Number of test specimens . 8
6.5 Conditioning. 8
7 Procedure .8
8 Calculation and expression of results . 9
8.1 Unnotched specimens . 9
8.2 Notched specimens . 9
8.3 Statistical parameters. 9
8.4 Significant figures. 9
9 Precision . 9
10 Test report .10
Annex A (informative) Precision statement .12
Bibliography .14
iii
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 3 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and nongovernmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to
the World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see
www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 61, Plastics, Subcommittee SC 2,
Mechanical behavior, in collaboration with the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Technical
Committee CEN/TC 249, Plastics, in accordance with the Agreement on technical cooperation between
ISO and CEN (Vienna Agreement).
This fifth edition cancels and replaces the fourth edition (ISO 180:2019), which has been technically
revised.
The main changes are as follows:
— results of an interlaboratory test for unnotched specimens (see Annex A) have been added;
— reference to standard ISO 16012 (see the Bibliography and 5.2) has been added;
— symbols used in Formulae (1) and (2) have been reviewed and updated;
— method designation in Clause 10 b) have been reviewed and updated.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html.
iv
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 4 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Introduction
The Izod impact strength determination method is suitable for use with the following range of materials:
— rigid thermoplastic moulding and extrusion materials, including filled and reinforced compounds
in addition to unfilled types; rigid thermoplastics sheets;
— rigid thermosetting moulding materials, including filled and reinforced compounds; rigid
thermosetting sheets, including laminates;
— fibre-reinforced thermosetting and thermoplastic composites incorporating unidirectional or
nonunidirectional reinforcements such as mat, woven fabrics, woven rovings, chopped strands,
combination and hybrid reinforcements, rovings and milled fibres and sheet made from pre-
impregnated materials (prepregs);
— thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers.
The method is not normally suitable for use with rigid cellular materials and sandwich structures
containing cellular material. Notched specimens are also not normally used for long-fibre-reinforced
composites or thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers.
The method is suited to the use of specimens which can be either moulded to the chosen dimensions,
machined from the central portion of a standard multipurpose test specimen (see ISO 20753) or
machined from finished or semi-finished products such as mouldings, laminates and extruded or cast
sheet.
v
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 5 ----------------------
FINAL DRAFT INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
Plastics — Determination of Izod impact strength
1 Scope
This document specifies a method for determining the Izod impact strength of plastics under defined
conditions. A number of different types of specimen and test configurations are defined. Different test
parameters are specified according to the type of material, the type of test specimen and the type of
notch.
The method is used to investigate the behaviour of specified types of specimen under the impact
conditions defined and for estimating the brittleness or toughness of specimens within the limitations
inherent in the test conditions.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 291, Plastics — Standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing
ISO 293, Plastics — Compression moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials
ISO 2941, Plastics — Injection moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials — Part 1: General
principles, and moulding of multipurpose and bar test specimens
ISO 295, Plastics — Compression moulding of test specimens of thermosetting materials
ISO 1268 (all parts), Fibre-reinforced plastics — Methods of producing test plates.
ISO 2818, Plastics — Preparation of test specimens by machining
ISO 107241, Plastics — Injection moulding of test specimens of thermosetting powder moulding compounds
(PMCs) — Part 1: General principles and moulding of multipurpose test specimens
ISO 13802, Plastics — Verification of pendulum impact-testing machines — Charpy, Izod and tensile
impact-testing
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminology databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https:// www .electropedia .org/
3.1
Izod impact strength of unnotched specimen
a
iU
impact energy absorbed in breaking an unnotched specimen, referred to the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen
2
Note 1 to entry: It is expressed in kilojoules per square metre (kJ/m ).
1
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 6 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
3.2
Izod impact strength of notched specimen
a
iN
impact energy absorbed in breaking a notched specimen, referred to the original cross-sectional area
of the specimen at the notch, with the pendulum striking the face containing the notch
2
Note 1 to entry: It is expressed in kilojoules per square metre (kJ/m ).
3.3
parallel -direction of blow
p
impact with the direction of blow parallel to the plane of reinforcement
Note 1 to entry: The direction of the blow in the Izod test is usually “edgewise parallel” (ep) (see Figure 1).
3.4
normal direction of blow
n
impact with the direction of blow normal to the plane of reinforcement
Note 1 to entry: This kind of impact is not usually used with the Izod test, but is indicated for the sake of
completion (see also Figure 1).
4 Principle
The test specimen, supported as a vertical cantilever beam, is broken by a single impact of a striker,
with the line of impact a fixed distance from the specimen clamp and, in the case of notched specimens,
from the centreline of the notch (see Figure 2).
The method specifies preferred dimensions for the test specimen. Tests which are carried out on
specimens of different dimensions or with different notches, or specimens which are prepared under
different conditions, may produce results which are not comparable. Other factors, such as the energy
capacity of the apparatus, its impact velocity and the conditioning of the specimens can also influence
the results. Consequently, when comparative data are required, these factors are to be carefully
controlled and recorded.
The method is not intended to be used as a source of data for design calculations. Information on the
typical behaviour of a material can be obtained, however, by testing at different temperatures, by
varying the notch radius and/or the thickness and by testing specimens prepared under different
conditions.
5 Apparatus
5.1 Test machine
5.1.1 The principles, characteristics and verification of suitable test machines are detailed in
ISO 13802. ISO 13802 describes partial verification and full verification. In the case of full verification,
some items are difficult to verify when the apparatus is assembled. Such verifications are assumed to
be incumbent on the manufacturer.
5.1.2 Some plastics are sensitive to clamping pressure. When testing such materials, a means of
standardizing the clamping force shall be used and the clamping force shall be recorded in the test
report. The clamping force can be controlled by using a calibrated torque wrench or a pneumatic or
hydraulic device on the vice clamping screw.
2
© ISO 2023 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 7 ----------------------
ISO/FDIS 180:2023(E)
5.2 Micrometers and gauges
Micrometers and gauges capable of measuring the essential dimensions of test specimens to an accuracy
of 0,02 mm are required. For measuring the dimension b of notched specimens, the micrometer shall
N
be fitted with an anvil of width 2 mm to 3 mm and of suitable profile to fit the shape of the notch. For
general information on the determination of test specimen dimensions, see ISO 16012.
6 Test specimens
6.1 Preparation
6.1.1 Moulding and extrusion compounds
Specimens shall be pre
...
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