ISO/TR 27922:2021
(Main)Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of carbon dioxide capture technologies in the cement industry
Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of carbon dioxide capture technologies in the cement industry
This document provides an overview of technologies that are under development to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) that is generated during cement manufacture. This document is intended to inform users about the different technologies, including the characteristics, the maturity and the boundaries of these technologies. This document is applicable to organizations involved in the cement industry and other stakeholders (e.g. policy makers). This document addresses technologies for CO2 capture that have potential applications in the cement industry. This document does not address CO2 transport, CO2 storage or CO2 utilization.
Captage du dioxyde de carbone — Vue d'ensemble des technologies de captage du dioxyde de carbone dans l'industrie du ciment
Le présent document fournit une vue d'ensemble des technologies en cours de développement pour capter le dioxyde de carbone (CO2) produit lors de la fabrication du ciment. Il est destiné à donner aux utilisateurs des informations sur les différentes technologies, y compris les caractéristiques, la maturité et les limites de ces technologies. Il est applicable aux organismes impliqués dans l'industrie du ciment et à d'autres parties prenantes (par exemple, décideurs politiques). Il aborde les technologies de captage du CO2 qui peuvent être appliquées dans le secteur du ciment. Il ne traite pas du transport, du stockage ou de l'utilisation du CO2.
General Information
Buy Standard
Standards Content (Sample)
TECHNICAL ISO/TR
REPORT 27922
First edition
2021-02
Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of
carbon dioxide capture technologies
in the cement industry
Captage du dioxyde de carbone — Vue d'ensemble des technologies de
captage du dioxyde de carbone dans l'industrie du ciment
Reference number
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
©
ISO 2021
---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT
© ISO 2021
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting
on the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address
below or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
ISO copyright office
CP 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11
Email: copyright@iso.org
Website: www.iso.org
Published in Switzerland
ii © ISO 2021 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 2 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 CO and the cement industry . 1
2
4.1 Cement manufacture . 1
4.2 CO emissions from the cement industry . 3
2
4.2.1 Production process description . 3
4.2.2 Process emissions from calcination . 3
4.2.3 Combustion emissions . 4
4.2.4 Emissions compared to other sectors . 4
4.3 CO purification after capture . 4
2
4.4 Abatement technologies in general . 4
5 Overview of CO capture technologies . 5
2
5.1 Absorption with amines . 5
5.2 Absorption with chilled ammonia . 6
5.3 Sorbent-based adsorption technologies . 6
5.4 Oxy-fuel combustion technology . 7
5.5 Pressure swing adsorption separation technology . 8
5.6 Separation with membranes . 9
5.7 Direct separation .10
5.8 Calcium looping .11
6 Overview and assessment .13
6.1 Assessment factors of CO capture technologies .13
2
6.2 Case study of technological and economic evaluation of CO capture technologies .14
2
6.3 Ability to retrofit existing cement plants with CO capture technologies .15
2
7 Final considerations .15
Bibliography .17
© ISO 2021 – All rights reserved iii
---------------------- Page: 3 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www .iso .org/ directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www .iso .org/ patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see www .iso .org/
iso/ foreword .html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 265, Carbon dioxide capture,
transportation, and geological storage.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www .iso .org/ members .html.
iv © ISO 2021 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 4 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
Introduction
Concrete is the most-used manufactured substance on the planet in terms of volume. For example,
it is used to build homes, schools, hospitals, workplaces, roads, railways and ports, and to create
infrastructure to provide clean water, sanitation and energy. These are important for quality of life,
public health, and social and economic well-being.
Raw materials for concrete are abundant and available in most parts of the world. Concrete is affordable,
strong, durable and resilient to fire, floods and pests. It has the flexibility to produce complex and
massive structures. There is currently no other material that is available in the quantities necessary to
meet the demand for buildings and infrastructure.
Cement is used to manufacture concrete. It is described as the glue that binds the aggregates together.
The demand for concrete, and therefore for cement, is expected to increase, by 12 % to 23 % by 2050
compared to 2014, as economies continue to grow, especially in Asia.
Increasing global population, urbanisation patterns and infrastructure development will increase
global cement production. The use of concrete and cement is expected to become more efficient,
and concrete pours at the application phase are expected to decrease. The cement sector faces the
challenge of meeting an increasing demand for its product while cutting direct CO emissions from its
2
[7]
production . The cement industry is a large emitter of CO worldwide. The industry is committed to
2
reduce their carbon footprint to meet the targets of the ‘Paris Agreement’ on climate change.
Process emissions arising from the production of cement clinker present a fundamental challenge to
decarbonization of cement. In normal cement production processes, these process emissions are in the
[1]
range of 500 kg CO /tonne clinker to 540 kg CO /tonne clinker , corresponding to 250 kg CO to 500 kg
2 2 2
CO per tonne of cement depending on the type of cement. Replacement of limestone as raw materials
2
with alternative raw materials with lower carbonate content can reduce these process emissions, but
availability of these alternatives is limited, and the replacement potential is also limited (depending on
required cement qualities).
Combustion emissions are another contributor to CO emissions in addition to the process emissions.
2
Replacement of carbon-based fuels by non carbon-based energy sources and thermal energy from
biomass sources (being considered as CO neutral) will contribute to lowering the carbon intensity of
2
the energy supply for the cement industry in the future.
One way to reduce CO emissions is capturing CO that is released in the production of cement (both
2 2
direct emissions during the production process and emissions related to local energy production).
CO capture is an emerging approach for CO abatement in the cement industry. It means that CO
2 2 2
arising from the combustion of fuels and from the treatment of raw materials could be captured and
permanently stored or re-used. The integration of CO capture equipment typically increases the
2
specific energy intensity of cement manufacture, as additional energy is needed to operate the CO
2
capture plant, followed by drying, purification and compression of the captured CO for transportation,
2
[7]
(geological) storage and/or utilization . CO transportation, (geological) storage and utilization are
2
beyond the scope this document.
To date, no large-scale CO capturing technologies have been installed in the cement industry.
2
However, different technologies are under development to support the cement industry in achieving
their objectives. Various cement companies participate in one or more research, development and/or
demonstration projects in the field of CO capture. These projects provide useful information about the
2
application of the various technologies in the cement industry.
To facilitate the assessment and comparison of the different CO capturing technologies, this document
2
summarizes these technologies that are currently under development. This summary supplements and
updates the information provided in ISO/TR 27912:2016, Clause 10 on capture from cement production
processes. This document will inform the cement industry and their stakeholders on CO capture
2
technology options and other relevant aspects.
© ISO 2021 – All rights reserved v
---------------------- Page: 5 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
[5]
CO capture will be an item of interest for all cement producers in the years to come . Currently, about
2
[14]
2 000 cement plants with relevant CO emissions are operating worldwide with the majority of
2
these plants being located in Asia. CO capture implementation in the cement industry at global level
2
would need a transport and storage infrastructure to facilitate the decarbonization of cement plants
not located close to a geological storage facility or CO use facility. Together with the investments in CO
2 2
capture facilities, this will be a major cost factor for the cement industry.
vi © ISO 2021 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 6 ----------------------
TECHNICAL REPORT ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of carbon dioxide
capture technologies in the cement industry
1 Scope
This document provides an overview of technologies that are under development to capture carbon
dioxide (CO ) that is generated during cement manufacture.
2
This document is intended to inform users about the different technologies, including the characteristics,
the maturity and the boundaries of these technologies.
This document is applicable to organizations involved in the cement industry and other stakeholders
(e.g. policy makers).
This document addresses technologies for CO capture that have potential applications in the cement
2
industry. This document does not address CO transport, CO storage or CO utilization.
2 2 2
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 27917, Carbon dioxide capture, transportation and geological storage — Vocabulary — Cross
cutting terms
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 27917 apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at http:// www .electropedia .org/
4 CO and the cement industry
2
4.1 Cement manufacture
Cement manufacture is a three-stage process: raw materials preparation, clinker production and clinker
grinding with other components to produce cement. Figure 1 illustrates the process of manufacturing
cement. Different raw materials are mixed and milled into a homogeneous powder, from which clinker
is produced in high-temperature kilns where direct emissions of CO occur. Calcium oxide from the
2
calcination of limestone is a precursor to the formation of calcium silicates that gives cement its
[7]
strength .
© ISO 2021 – All rights reserved 1
---------------------- Page: 7 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
Key
1 quarrying raw materials 10 kiln
2 crushing limestone 11 calcination-burning raw meal to clinker
3 storage and pre-homogenization of raw material 12 cooling
4 other raw materials 13 clinker storage
5 raw mill 14 secondary additives
6 filter and chimney 15 cement mills
7 raw meal homogenization 16 cement storage
8 preheating 17 cement dispatch
9 pulverized coal 18 transportation by bulk or bags
[17]
Figure 1 — Cement manufacture
Clinker is ground together with gypsum to produce cement. Depending on the required technical
properties of the finished cement, other components, including fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace
slag and fine limestone, can also be ground together with clinker or blended to produce different
cement types. Cement can be produced at the kiln site, or at separate grinding or blending plants.
Blended cements or “combinations” can also be produced at the concrete plant. The cement making
process is complex – it requires control of the chemical formulation and involves multiple steps that
[7]
require specialised equipment .
2 © ISO 2021 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 8 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
4.2 CO emissions from the cement industry
2
4.2.1 Production process description
Figure 2 schematically shows the process steps of cement manufacture. There are two main sources of
direct CO emissions in the production process of cement:
2
— calcination of raw materials in the pyro-processing stage (60 % to 70 % of direct CO emissions
2
resulting from the chemical breakdown of limestone when it is heated to high temperature); and
— combustion of kiln fuels (30 % to 40 % of direct CO emissions).
2
Flue gas in the cement industry has a relatively high CO content (typically 20 % to about 30 % CO ).
2 2
Other CO sources include direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from non-kiln fuels (e.g. dryers for
2
cement constituents products, room heating, on-site transport and on-site power generation), and
indirect GHG emissions from e.g. external power production and transport. Apart from methane (CH )
4
[1]
and nitrous oxide (N 0), emissions of non-CO greenhouse gases are negligible .
2 2
Key
++ major CO emission source + minor CO emission source
2 2
[1]
Figure 2 — Process steps in cement manufacture with indication of CO emission sources
2
4.2.2 Process emissions from calcination
In the clinker production process, CO is released from the chemical decomposition of calcium
2
carbonates, magnesium carbonates and other carbonates (e.g. from limestone) into lime by heating up
the raw materials to above 900 °C:
© ISO 2021 – All rights reserved 3
---------------------- Page: 9 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
CaCO + heat → CaO + CO
3 2
MgCO + heat → MgO + CO
3 2
This process is called "calcining" or "calcination". It results in direct CO emissions through the kiln
2
[1]
stack .
4.2.3 Combustion emissions
The cement industry traditionally uses various fossil fuels to operate cement kilns, including coal,
petroleum coke, fuel oil, and natural gas. Fuels derived from waste materials have become important
substitutes for traditional fossil fuels. These alternative fuels include fossil fuel-derived fractions such
as waste oil and plastics, as well as biomass-derived fractions such as waste wood and dewatered
sludge from wastewater treatment. Furthermore, fuels which contain both fossil and biogenic carbon
(mixed fuels) are increasingly used. Examples are (pre-treated) municipal and (pre-treated) industrial
wastes (containing plastics, textiles, paper, etc.) or waste tyres (containing natural rubber and synthetic
[1]
rubber) .
4.2.4 Emissions compared to other sectors
Due to the nature of the production process (combustion, calcination for limestone and the drying of
raw materials), the exhaust gas of a typical cement plant is significantly different from other production
processes (e.g. thermal power generation). This difference is characterized by the cement exhaust gas
conditions, such as flue gas composition, temperature, and dust and moisture content. Consequently,
(standard) CO capture technologies are not necessarily applicable in the cement industry.
2
4.3 CO purification after capture
2
For CO transport, CO storage and/or CO utilization, purity levels above 96 % CO are recommended.
2 2 2 2
Different approaches are available to increase the CO -product purity level. A common approach is to add
2
extra adsorption stages with recycling of the low-grade side stream. High-pressure flash separation can
reduce investment and/or energy use. High-pressure flash separation can be attractive, as the produced
CO flow will be compressed before transport. Similarly, separation by low-temperature liquefaction of
2
CO can be attractive, as the product can be in a liquid state which is suitable for transport by ship or
2
can easily be compressed with low energy penalty. Purification of the captured CO is not specifically
2
addressed in this document.
4.4 Abatement technologies in general
For decades, several CO emission abatement technologies and measures have been used in the cement
2
[7]
industry to reduce the process and combustion emissions. They generally fall into four categories :
a) Improving energy efficiency: deploying existing state-of-the-art technologies in new cement plants
and retrofitting existing facilities to improve energy performance levels when economically viable.
b) Switching to alternative fuels (fuels that are less carbon intensive than conventional fuels):
promoting the use of biomass and waste materials as fuels in cement kilns to offset the consumption
of fossil fuels. Utilizing wastes, including biogenic and non-biogenic waste sources, which would
otherwise be sent to a landfill site, burnt in incinerators or improperly destroyed.
c) Reducing the clinker to cement ratio: increasing the use of blended materials and the market
deployment of blended cements, to decrease the amount of clinker required per tonne of cement or
per cubic metre of concrete produced.
d) Using emerging and innovative technologies that:
— contribute to the decarbonisation of electricity generation by adopting waste heat recovery
technologies to generate electricity from recovered thermal energy, which would otherwise be
4 © ISO 2021 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 10 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
lost, and support the adoption of renewable-based power generation technologies, such as solar
thermal power;
— integrate carbon dioxide capture into the cement manufacturing process for long-lasting or
permanent storage;
— integrate carbon dioxide capture and re-use for new products, including recarbonation of
concrete and mineralisation of (recycled) aggregates.
The CO emissions reduction impact of these levers is not always additive since they individually
2
affect the potential for emissions reductions of other options. For instance, the use of alternative fuels
generally requires greater specific thermal energy and electricity due to their higher moisture content
than fossil fuels, the operation of the kiln with increased input of ambient air compared to conventional
[7]
fossil fuels and the pre-treatment of alternative fuels .
5 Overview of CO capture technologies
2
5.1 Absorption with amines
The principle of post-combustion technologies is the separation of CO from flue gases after combustion.
2
Flue gases are normally at atmospheric pressure and high temperatures. CO is removed from a mixture
2
of primarily nitrogen, oxygen and water with flue gas impurities such as SOx, NOx and particulates.
Gas separation by absorption relies on the principle that CO can be selectively, and reversibly, removed
2
from the flue gas with a chemically reactive liquid in an absorption column. The CO -rich flow is then
2
transferred to a desorption column/stripper and heated up to release the CO . The released CO is dried,
2 2
purified and compressed while the regenerated absorbent is cooled and returned to the absorption
column. A schematic representation of the absorptive CO capture is shown in Figure 3.
2
In chemical absorption post-combustion capture, aqueous amine solutions are often used to chemically
bond CO to the amines. Absorption liquids based on monoethanolamine (MEA) are first generation and
2
still widely used for CO separation having high selectivity, fast reaction rates and low cost. MEA has a
2
[6]
thermal energy requirement for regeneration of absorbent of at least 3 MJ/kgCO . In cement plants,
2
the thermal energy is provided via waste heat recovery and/or an external unit. Equipment corrosion
when using MEA solutions is an issue as well as oxidative degradation. Amine-based post-combustion
processes require a prior clean-up (desulfurization and denitrification) as amines will react with SOx
and NOx. These aspects increase the plant footprint as well as the capital and operating costs. Reported
[21]
MEA requirements are between 0,5 kg MEA/tonne CO and 3,1 kg MEA/tonne CO .
2 2
Improved amine solutions, e.g. based on sterically hindered amines and amino acid salts, which require
a lower regeneration temperature, are non-corrosive to carbon steel at 130 °C in the presence of oxygen
and have a better resistance to degradation, and are also commercially available.
© ISO 2021 – All rights reserved 5
---------------------- Page: 11 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
Key
gas 5 desorportion column/stripper
liquid 6 reboiler
1 flue gas 7 stack
2 cooler 8 transport/storage
3 absorption column 9 low-pressure steam
4 lean-rich heat exchanger
[6]
Figure 3 — Schematic representation of absorptive CO capture
2
The technology was evaluated in the period 2013 to 2015 for the cement application at the Norcem
cement plant in Brevik (Norway). During this pilot trial, a slipstream from the kiln flue gas was treated
with an amine technology prototype. The amine solution showed good stability and a capture ratio of
90 % was obtained. The energy for the capture system was provided by waste heat from the cement
[15]
plant .
Next generation amine based CO capture processes with demixing solvents show improved absorption
2
properties of CO , leading to significant capture cost reduction compared to the standard 30 % MEA
2
[8]
process .
5.2 Absorption with chilled ammonia
Another feasible approach for the capture of CO is the chilled ammonia process. This approach
2
uses ammonia/ammonium carbonate as the absorbent and the capture process causes ammonium
bicarbonate to precipitate as a solid. Although ammonia is a cheap solvent, with a low energy
requirement for regeneration and insensitivity to flue gas impurities, the process requires refrigeration
facilities to cool the flue gas to less than 10 °C. In addition, complex washing in the column heads is
required as NH is a fugitive solvent and extra measures needs to be employed to prevent escape of
3
NH into the atmosphere. Furthermore, ammonium bicarbonate precipitating in the solvent should be
3
[6]
separated from the circulating solvent using a hydro cyclone . Recent projects have shown that the
precipitation of ammonium bicarbonate can be avoided by selecting other process conditions in the
absorber. There is also a risk of explosion associated with the dry CO -NH reaction (explosion limit for
2 3
[6]
NH is 15 % to 28 %) .
3
The chilled ammonia process has been demonstrated at the CO Technology Centre Mongstad
2
[7]
(Norway) . The absorber, direct contact cooler, and water wash were tested specifically for (synthetic)
[19]
cement flue gas in the CEMCAP project at GE's plant in Växjö (Sweden) .
5.3 Sorbent-based adsorption technologies
Sorbent-based processes separate and recover CO by a cyclic, thermal swing, adsorption-desorption
2
process similar to the conventional solvent processes. Solid sorbents are considered promising,
6 © ISO 2021 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 12 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(E)
because they can exhibit high CO loadings, have low heat capacities, are typically less corrosive, and
2
avoid toxicity/volatility issues associated with liquid solvent systems. Supported amine sorbents
can be particularly attractive and have the potential to reduce the regeneration needed to carry out
CO capture from industrial exhaust gases. Generally, adsorption technologies, like pressure swing
2
adsorption (see 5.5) or temperature swing adsorption, deliver good CO removal (above 90 %), but
2
lower CO -production purity (below 90 %) in the product.
2
The adsorption technology has also attracted the interest of the cement industry and has been evaluated
in a pilot plant installation in the Norcem plant in Brevik (Norway). Pilot-scale tests and process
simulations carried out in 2016 resulted in a significant increase in capital expenditures (CAPEX) and
[19]
operational expenditures (OPEX), due to a poorer sorbent performance than anticipated .
5.4 Oxy-fuel combustion technology
The oxy-fuel technology relies on pure oxygen instead of ambient air for combustion. To enable this, the
nitrogen is removed from ambient air in a separation unit and the remaining oxygen is supplied to the
[6]
kiln. Consequently, the concentration of CO in the flue gas significantly increases . The gas properties
2
are significantly different from those in a conventional kiln operation which has a corresponding impact
on the clinker burning process. Additionally, the
...
RAPPORT ISO/TR
TECHNIQUE 27922
Première édition
2021-02
Captage du dioxyde de carbone —
Vue d'ensemble des technologies de
captage du dioxyde de carbone dans
l'industrie du ciment
Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of carbon dioxide capture
technologies in the cement industry
Numéro de référence
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
©
ISO 2021
---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
DOCUMENT PROTÉGÉ PAR COPYRIGHT
© ISO 2021
Tous droits réservés. Sauf prescription différente ou nécessité dans le contexte de sa mise en œuvre, aucune partie de cette
publication ne peut être reproduite ni utilisée sous quelque forme que ce soit et par aucun procédé, électronique ou mécanique,
y compris la photocopie, ou la diffusion sur l’internet ou sur un intranet, sans autorisation écrite préalable. Une autorisation peut
être demandée à l’ISO à l’adresse ci-après ou au comité membre de l’ISO dans le pays du demandeur.
ISO copyright office
Case postale 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
CH-1214 Vernier, Genève
Tél.: +41 22 749 01 11
E-mail: copyright@iso.org
Web: www.iso.org
Publié en Suisse
ii © ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés
---------------------- Page: 2 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Sommaire Page
Avant-propos .iv
Introduction .v
1 Domaine d’application . 1
2 Références normatives . 1
3 Termes et définitions . 1
4 Le CO et l’industrie du ciment . 1
2
4.1 Fabrication du ciment . 1
4.2 Émissions de CO produites par l’industrie du ciment . 3
2
4.2.1 Description du procédé de production . 3
4.2.2 Émissions dues au procédé de calcination . 3
4.2.3 Émissions dues à la combustion. 4
4.2.4 Émissions comparées à d’autres secteurs . 4
4.3 Purification du CO après captage. 4
2
4.4 Technologies de réduction globale . 4
5 Vue d’ensemble des technologies de captage du CO . 5
2
5.1 Absorption avec des amines . 5
5.2 Absorption avec de l’ammoniac réfrigéré . 6
5.3 Technologies d’adsorption à base de sorbant . 7
5.4 Technologie de combustion oxy-fuel . 7
5.5 Technologie de séparation par adsorption modulée en pression . 8
5.6 Séparation par membranes . 9
5.7 Séparation directe .10
5.8 Boucle de calcium .11
6 Vue d’ensemble et évaluation .13
6.1 Facteurs d’évaluation des technologies de captage du CO .13
2
6.2 Étude de cas de l’évaluation technico-économique des technologies de captage du CO .14
2
6.3 Possibilité de modernisation des technologies de captage du CO dans des
2
cimenteries existantes .16
7 Considérations finales .16
Bibliographie .18
© ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés iii
---------------------- Page: 3 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Avant-propos
L’ISO (Organisation internationale de normalisation) est une fédération mondiale d’organismes
nationaux de normalisation (comités membres de l’ISO). L’élaboration des Normes internationales est
en général confiée aux comités techniques de l’ISO. Chaque comité membre intéressé par une étude
a le droit de faire partie du comité technique créé à cet effet. Les organisations internationales,
gouvernementales et non gouvernementales, en liaison avec l’ISO participent également aux travaux.
L’ISO collabore étroitement avec la Commission électrotechnique internationale (IEC) en ce qui
concerne la normalisation électrotechnique.
Les procédures utilisées pour élaborer le présent document et celles destinées à sa mise à jour sont
décrites dans les Directives ISO/IEC, Partie 1. Il convient, en particulier de prendre note des différents
critères d’approbation requis pour les différents types de documents ISO. Le présent document a été
rédigé conformément aux règles de rédaction données dans les Directives ISO/IEC, Partie 2 (voir www
.iso .org/ directives).
L'attention est attirée sur le fait que certains des éléments du présent document peuvent faire l'objet de
droits de propriété intellectuelle ou de droits analogues. L'ISO ne saurait être tenue pour responsable
de ne pas avoir identifié de tels droits de propriété et averti de leur existence. Les détails concernant
les références aux droits de propriété intellectuelle ou autres droits analogues identifiés lors de
l'élaboration du document sont indiqués dans l'Introduction et/ou dans la liste des déclarations de
brevets reçues par l'ISO (voir www .iso .org/ brevets).
Les appellations commerciales éventuellement mentionnées dans le présent document sont données
pour information, par souci de commodité, à l’intention des utilisateurs et ne sauraient constituer un
engagement.
Pour une explication de la nature volontaire des normes, de la signification des termes et expressions
spécifiques de l’ISO liés à l’évaluation de la conformité, ou pour toute autre information au sujet de
l’adhésion de l’ISO aux principes de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) concernant les
obstacles techniques au commerce (OTC), voir www .iso .org/ avant -propos.
Le présent document a été élaboré par le comité technique ISO/TC 265, Captage du dioxyde de carbone,
transport et stockage géologique.
Il convient que l’utilisateur adresse tout retour d’information ou toute question concernant le présent
document à l’organisme national de normalisation de son pays. Une liste exhaustive desdits organismes
se trouve à l’adresse www .iso .org/ members .html.
iv © ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés
---------------------- Page: 4 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Introduction
Le béton est la substance manufacturée la plus utilisée sur la planète en termes de volume. Par exemple,
il est utilisé pour construire des maisons, des écoles, des usines, des routes, des voies ferrées et des
ports, et pour créer les infrastructures nécessaires à l’adduction d’eau propre, l’assainissement et
l’alimentation en énergie. Ces éléments sont importants pour la qualité de vie, la santé publique ainsi
que le bien-être social et économique.
Les matières premières nécessaires pour fabriquer le béton sont abondantes et disponibles dans
la plupart des pays du monde. Le béton est économique, robuste, durable et résistant aux incendies,
inondations et parasites. Il permet de produire des structures complexes et massive. Il n’existe à ce jour
aucun autre matériau disponible en quantités nécessaires pour répondre à la demande dans le secteur
du bâtiment et des infrastructures.
Le ciment sert à fabriquer le béton. Il est décrit comme étant le liant qui lie les agrégats entre eux.
Étant donné que l’économie ne cesse de croître, notamment en Asie, on prévoit une augmentation de la
demande en béton, et donc en ciment, de 12 % à 23 % d’ici 2050, par rapport à 2014.
L’augmentation de la population mondiale, les modèles d’urbanisation et le développement
d’infrastructures entraîneront une hausse de la production mondiale de ciment. On prévoit une
utilisation plus efficace du béton et du ciment, et une diminution des coulées de béton lors de la phase
d’application. Le secteur du ciment fait face à un enjeu de taille: répondre à la demande croissante en
[7]
ciment tout en réduisant les émissions directes de CO issues de sa production . L’industrie du ciment
2
est un gros émetteur de CO dans le monde entier. Elle s’est engagée à réduire son empreinte carbone
2
afin d’atteindre les objectifs de l’Accord de Paris sur le changement climatique.
Les émissions dues au procédé résultant de la production de clinker de ciment doivent être soumises
à une étape essentielle de décarbonatation du ciment. Dans les procédés normaux de production de
ciment, ces émissions dues au procédé se situent entre 500 kg de CO /tonne de clinker et 540 kg de
2
[1]
CO /tonne de clinker , ce qui correspond à 250 kg de CO à 500 kg de CO par tonne de ciment selon
2 2 2
le type de ciment. Pour réduire ces émissions dues au procédé, il est également possible de remplacer
le calcaire par d’autres matières premières contenant moins de carbonate, mais la disponibilité de ces
alternatives ainsi que la possibilité de substitution sont limitées (en fonction des qualités requises du
ciment).
Outre les émissions dues au procédé, les émissions dues à la combustion constituent une autre contribution
aux émissions de CO . À l’avenir, remplacer les combustibles carbonés par des sources d'énergie non
2
carbonées et de l'énergie thermique issue de biomasses (considérées neutres en CO ) contribuera à
2
réduire la part du carbone dans l’approvisionnement énergétique pour l’industrie du ciment.
Une méthode de réduction des émissions de CO consiste à capter le CO émis par la production de
2 2
ciment (émissions directes pendant le procédé de production et émissions liées à la production
d’énergie locale). Le captage du CO est une nouvelle technique de réduction du CO dans l’industrie
2 2
du ciment. Cela signifie que le CO issu de la combustion des combustibles et de la transformation des
2
matières premières peut être capté et stocké définitivement ou réutilisé. Généralement, l’intégration
de l’équipement de captage du CO augmente la part énergétique spécifique de la production de ciment,
2
car il est nécessaire d’utiliser davantage d’énergie pour faire fonctionner l’installation de captage du
CO . Il faut ensuite sécher, purifier et comprimer le CO capté en vue de son transport, son stockage
2 2
[7]
(géologique) et son utilisation . Le transport, le stockage (géologique) et l’utilisation du CO ne font
2
pas partie du domaine d’application du présent document.
À ce jour, aucune technologie de captage du CO à grande échelle n’a été installée dans le secteur du
2
ciment. Différentes technologies sont toutefois en cours de développement afin d’aider l’industrie du
ciment à atteindre ses objectifs. Plusieurs cimenteries participent à un ou plusieurs projets de recherche,
développement et/ou démonstration dans le domaine du captage du CO . Ces projets fournissent des
2
informations utiles sur l’application des différentes technologies dans le secteur du ciment.
Pour faciliter l’évaluation et la comparaison des différentes technologies de captage du CO , le présent
2
document résume ces technologies qui sont en cours de développement. Ce résumé ajoute et met
© ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés v
---------------------- Page: 5 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
à jour les informations fournies dans l’ISO/TR 27912:2016, Article 10 sur le captage des procédés
de production de ciment. Ce document donnera des informations sur les différentes technologies de
capture du CO et d’autres aspects pertinents pour l’industrie du ciment et ses parties prenantes.
2
[5]
Dans les années à venir, le captage du CO sera un sujet important pour toutes les cimenteries . Il
2
[14]
existe actuellement environ 2 000 cimenteries émettrices de CO dans le monde , la majorité étant
2
implantée en Asie. La mise en œuvre du captage du CO dans le secteur du ciment au niveau mondial
2
nécessite une infrastructure de transport et de stockage pour faciliter la décarbonatation du ciment
produit par les cimenteries qui ne sont pas situées à proximité d’installations de stockage géologique
ou d’installations d’utilisation du CO . Combinée aux investissements déployés pour les installations de
2
captage du CO , il s’agira un facteur coût majeur pour l’industrie du ciment.
2
vi © ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés
---------------------- Page: 6 ----------------------
RAPPORT TECHNIQUE ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Captage du dioxyde de carbone — Vue d'ensemble des
technologies de captage du dioxyde de carbone dans
l'industrie du ciment
1 Domaine d’application
Le présent document fournit une vue d’ensemble des technologies en cours de développement pour
capter le dioxyde de carbone (CO ) produit lors de la fabrication du ciment.
2
Il est destiné à donner aux utilisateurs des informations sur les différentes technologies, y compris les
caractéristiques, la maturité et les limites de ces technologies.
Il est applicable aux organismes impliqués dans l’industrie du ciment et à d’autres parties prenantes
(par exemple, décideurs politiques).
Il aborde les technologies de captage du CO qui peuvent être appliquées dans le secteur du ciment. Il ne
2
traite pas du transport, du stockage ou de l’utilisation du CO .
2
2 Références normatives
Les documents suivants sont cités dans le texte de sorte qu’ils constituent, pour tout ou partie de leur
contenu, des exigences du présent document. Pour les références datées, seule l’édition citée s’applique.
Pour les références non datées, la dernière édition du document de référence s'applique (y compris les
éventuels amendements).
ISO 27917, Captage, transport et stockage géologique du dioxyde de carbone — Vocabulaire — Termes
transversaux
3 Termes et définitions
Pour les besoins du présent document, les termes et définitions donnés dans l’ISO 27917 s'appliquent.
L’ISO et l’IEC tiennent à jour des bases de données terminologiques destinées à être utilisées en
normalisation, consultables aux adresses suivantes:
— ISO Online browsing platform: disponible à l’adresse https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: disponible à l’adresse http:// www .electropedia .org/
4 Le CO et l’industrie du ciment
2
4.1 Fabrication du ciment
La fabrication du ciment est un procédé en trois étapes: préparation des matières premières, production
du clinker et broyage du clinker avec d’autres composants pour produire le ciment. La Figure 1 illustre
le procédé de fabrication du ciment. Diverses matières premières sont broyées et mélangées de façon
à obtenir une poudre homogène à partir de laquelle le clinker est produit dans des fours à haute
température où les émissions directes de CO ont lieu. L’oxyde de calcium résultant de la calcination du
2
[7]
calcaire est un précurseur de la formation de silicates de calcium qui donne au ciment sa résistance .
© ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés 1
---------------------- Page: 7 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Légende
1 matières premières excavées 10 four
2 broyage du calcaire 11 calcination-combustion du cru en clinker
3 stockage et pré-homogénéisation de la matière première 12 refroidissement
4 autres matières premières 13 stockage du clinker
5 broyeur à cru 14 additifs secondaires
6 filtre et cheminée 15 broyeurs à ciment
7 homogénéisation du cru 16 stockage du ciment
8 préchauffage 17 répartition du ciment
9 charbon pulvérisé 18 transport en vrac ou en sacs
[17]
Figure 1 — Fabrication du ciment
Le clinker est broyé avec du gypse pour produire du ciment. Selon les propriétés techniques requises du
ciment final, d’autres composants, notamment les cendres volantes, le laitier granulé de haut-fourneau
et le calcaire à grain fin, peuvent également être broyés avec le clinker ou mélangés pour produire
différents types de ciment. Le ciment peut être produit sur le site du four ou dans des installations de
broyage ou de mélange séparées. Des ciments mélangés ou des «combinaisons» peuvent également être
produits dans la centrale à béton. Le procédé de fabrication du ciment est complexe. Il nécessite d’en
[7]
connaître la formulation chimique et implique plusieurs étapes requérant un équipement spécifique .
2 © ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés
---------------------- Page: 8 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
4.2 Émissions de CO produites par l’industrie du ciment
2
4.2.1 Description du procédé de production
La Figure 2 est un schéma illustrant les différentes étapes du procédé de fabrication du ciment. Il existe
deux principales sources d'émissions directes de CO lors du procédé de production de ciment, à savoir:
2
— calcination des matières premières pendant la pyrolyse (60 % à 70 % d'émissions directes de CO
2
résultant de la décomposition chimique du calcaire lorsqu’il est chauffé à haute température); et
— combustion des combustibles cuits au four (30 % à 40 % d'émissions directes de CO ).
2
Dans le secteur du ciment, l’effluent gazeux a une teneur en CO relativement élevée (généralement
2
20 % à environ 30 % de CO ). D’autres sources de CO incluent les émissions directes de gaz à effet de
2 2
serre (GES) provenant de combustibles non cuits au four (par exemple, sécheurs pour produits issus des
constituants du ciment, chauffage des locaux, transport sur site et production d’énergie sur site) et les
émissions indirectes de GES résultant, par exemple, de la production d’énergie externe et du transport.
Hormis le méthane (CH ) et l’oxyde nitreux (N 0), les émissions de gaz à effet de serre autres que le CO
4 2 2
[1]
sont négligeables .
Légende
++ principale source d'émissions de CO + source secondaire d'émissions de CO
2 2
Figure 2 — Étapes du procédé de fabrication du ciment avec l’indication des sources d'émissions
[1]
de CO
2
4.2.2 Émissions dues au procédé de calcination
Lors du procédé de production du clinker, du CO est émis par la décomposition chimique des carbonates
2
de calcium, des carbonates de magnésium et d’autres carbonates (par exemple, issus du calcaire) en
chaux en chauffant les matières premières à plus de 900 °C:
CaCO + chaleur → CaO + CO
3 2
MgCO + chaleur → MgO + CO
3 2
© ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés 3
---------------------- Page: 9 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Ce procédé est appelé «cuisson» ou «calcination». Il produit des émissions directes de CO dans la
2
[1]
cheminée du four .
4.2.3 Émissions dues à la combustion
L’industrie du ciment utilise généralement divers combustibles fossiles pour faire fonctionner les fours
à ciment, notamment le charbon, le coke de pétrole, le fioul et le gaz naturel. Les combustibles issus des
déchets remplacent de plus en plus les combustibles fossiles traditionnels. Ces combustibles alternatifs
comprennent des combustibles issus de sources fossiles tels que l’huile usagée et le plastique, ainsi que
des combustibles issus de la biomasse tels que les déchets de bois et les boues déshydratées résultant du
traitement des eaux usées. En outre, les combustibles solides de récupération (CSR) sont de plus en plus
utilisés. Ces combustibles sont, par exemple, les déchets ménagers et industriels (prétraités) (contenant
du plastique, des textiles, du papier, etc.) ou les pneumatiques usagés (contenant du caoutchouc naturel
[1]
et du caoutchouc naturel) .
4.2.4 Émissions comparées à d’autres secteurs
En raison de la nature du procédé de production (combustion, calcination du calcaire et séchage
des matières premières), le gaz de combustion d’une cimenterie typique est nettement différent de
celui présent dans d’autres procédés de production (par exemple, production d'énergie thermique).
Cette différence est caractérisée par les conditions du gaz de combustion du ciment, notamment
la composition de l’effluent gazeux, la température ainsi que la teneur en poussière et en humidité.
Par conséquent, certaines technologies (standards) de captage du CO ne sont pas nécessairement
2
applicables dans l’industrie du ciment.
4.3 Purification du CO après captage
2
Pour le transport, le stockage et/ou l’utilisation du CO , des niveaux de pureté supérieurs à 96 % de
2
CO sont recommandés. Il existe différentes approches permettant d’augmenter le niveau de pureté
2
du produit contenant du CO . Une approche courante consiste à ajouter des étapes d’adsorption
2
supplémentaires lors du recyclage de la fraction de gaz de faible pureté. Une séparation flash à haute
pression peut réduire les coûts ou la consommation d’énergie. La séparation flash à haute pression
peut être attrayante car le flux de CO produit sera comprimé avant le transport. De la même façon,
2
la séparation par liquéfaction à basse température du CO peut être intéressante car le produit peut
2
être à l’état liquide, ce qui est approprié pour le transport par bateau, ou il peut être comprimé sans
consommer trop d'énergie. La purification du CO capté n’est pas spécifiquement abordée par le présent
2
document.
4.4 Technologies de réduction globale
Depuis des dizaines d’années, plusieurs technologies et mesures de réduction des émissions de CO sont
2
utilisées dans l’industrie du ciment pour réduire les émissions dues au procédé et à la combustion. Elles
[7]
sont généralement classées dans quatre catégories :
a) Amélioration du rendement énergétique: déploiement des technologies de pointe existantes dans
de nouvelles cimenteries et modernisation des installations existantes pour améliorer les niveaux
de performance énergétique en cas de viabilité économique.
b) Passage aux combustibles alternatifs (combustibles moins riches en carbone que les combustibles
classiques): amélioration de l’utilisation de la biomasse et des déchets en tant que combustibles
dans les fours à ciment pour compenser la consommation de combustibles fossiles. Utilisation
des déchets, notamment les déchets biogéniques et non biogéniques, qui seraient normalement
acheminés dans une décharge, brûlés dans des incinérateurs ou détruits de façon inappropriée.
c) Réduction du rapport clinker/ciment: augmentation de l’utilisation de matériaux mélangés et
déploiement commercial de ciments mélangés, pour réduire la quantité de clinker requise par
tonne de ciment ou par mètre cube de béton produit.
4 © ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés
---------------------- Page: 10 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
d) Utilisation de technologies nouvelles et innovantes qui:
— contribuent à la décarbonatation de la production d'électricité en adoptant des technologies
de récupération de la chaleur pour produire de l’électricité à partir de l'énergie thermique
récupérée, qui serait normalement perdue, et favoriser l’adoption de technologies de production
d'électricité à base d’énergies renouvelables, notamment l’énergie héliothermique;
— intègrent le captage du dioxyde de carbone dans le procédé de fabrication du ciment en vue d’un
stockage à long terme ou définitif;
— intègrent le captage et la réutilisation du dioxyde de carbone pour de nouveaux produits,
notamment la recarbonatation du béton et la minéralisation des agrégats (recyclés).
L’impact de réduction des émissions de CO de ces leviers n’est pas toujours additif car ils affectent
2
individuellement le potentiel de réduction des émissions d’autres options. Par exemple, l’utilisation
de combustibles alternatifs requiert généralement davantage d'énergie thermique spécifique
et d'électricité en raison de leur teneur en humidité plus élevée que les combustibles fossiles, le
fonctionnement du four avec l’apport accru d’air ambiant par rapport aux combustibles fossiles et le
[7]
prétraitement des combustibles alternatifs .
5 Vue d’ensemble des technologies de captage du CO
2
5.1 Absorption avec des amines
Le principe des technologies de post-combustion est la séparation du CO des effluents gazeux après
2
combustion. Les effluents gazeux sont normalement à pression atmosphérique et à hautes températures.
Le CO est éliminé d'un mélange principalement constitué d’azote, d’oxygène et d’eau avec des impuretés
2
gazeuses telles que du SOx, du NOx et des particules.
La séparation des gaz par absorption repose sur le principe selon lequel le CO peut être éliminé de
2
manière sélective et réversible de l’effluent gazeux avec un liquide chimiquement réactif dans une
colonne d’absorption. Le flux riche en CO est ensuite transféré vers une colonne de désorption puis
2
chauffer pour libérer le CO . Le CO libéré est séché, purifié et comprimé tandis que l’absorbant régénéré
2 2
est refroidi et renvoyé dans la colonne d’absorption. Une représentation schématique du captage par
absorption de CO est illustrée à la Figure 3.
2
Lors du captage par absorption chimique en post-combustion, des solutions d’amines aqueuses sont
souvent utilisées pour capter le CO . Les liquides absorbants à base de monoéthanolamine (MEA) sont
2
des solvants de première génération encore largement utilisés pour la séparation du CO en vertu
2
de leur haute sélectivité, de leurs vitesses de réaction élevées et de leur faible coût. La MEA a une
[6]
demande d’énergie thermique pour la régénération de l’absorbant d’au moins 3 MJ/kg de CO . Dans
2
les cimenteries, l’énergie thermique est fournie par la récupération de la chaleur et/ou une installation
externe. Lors de l’utilisation de solutions à base de MEA, la corrosion de l’équipement est une
problématique, tout comme la dégradation du solvant par oxydation. Les procédés de post-combustion
à base d’amines nécessitent une purification préalable (désulfuration et dénitrification) car les amines
réagiront avec le SOx et le NOx. Ces aspects augmentent l’empreinte de la cimenterie, ainsi que les coûts
d'immobilisations et de fonctionnement. Les exigences rapportées pour la MEA se situent entre 0,5 kg
[21]
de MEA/tonne de CO et 3,1 kg de MEA/tonne de CO .
2 2
Les solutions d’amines améliorées, par exemple à base d’amines à encombrement stérique et de sels
d’acides aminés, qui nécessitent une température de régénération moins élevée, ne corrodent pas l’acier
au carbone à 130 °C en présence d’oxygène et ont une meilleure résistance à la dégradation, et sont
également disponibles dans le commerce.
© ISO 2021 – Tous droits réservés 5
---------------------- Page: 11 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2021(F)
Légende
gaz 5 colonne de désorption
liquide 6 rebouilleur
1 effluent gazeux 7 cheminée
2 refroidisseur 8 transport/stockage
3 colonne d’absorption 9 vapeur à basse pression
4 échangeur thermique
[6]
Figure 3 — Représentation schématique du captage par absorption de CO
2
La technologie a été évaluée entre 2013 et 2015 pour l’application de ciment dans la cimenterie Norvem
à Brevik (Norvège). Au cours de cet essai pilote, un prélèvement partiel de l’effluent gazeux du four a
été traité avec un prototype de la technologie utilisant des amines. La solution d’amines a montré une
stabilité correcte et un taux de captage de 90 % a été obtenu. L’énergie du système de captage était
[15]
fournie par la chal
...
TECHNICAL ISO/TR
REPORT 27922
First edition
Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of
carbon dioxide capture technologies
in the cement industry
PROOF/ÉPREUVE
Reference number
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
©
ISO 2020
---------------------- Page: 1 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT
© ISO 2020
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting
on the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address
below or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
ISO copyright office
CP 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11
Email: copyright@iso.org
Website: www.iso.org
Published in Switzerland
ii PROOF/ÉPREUVE © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 2 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introductions .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 CO and the cement industry . 1
2
4.1 Cement manufacture . 1
4.2 CO emissions from the cement industry . 3
2
4.2.1 Production process description . 3
4.2.2 Process emissions from calcination . 3
4.2.3 Combustion emissions . 4
4.2.4 Emissions compared to other sectors . 4
4.3 CO purification after capture . 4
2
4.4 Abatement technologies in general . 4
5 Overview of CO capture technologies . 5
2
5.1 Absorption with amines . 5
5.2 Absorption with chilled ammonia . 6
5.3 Sorbent-based adsorption technologies . 6
5.4 Oxy-fuel combustion technology . 7
5.5 Pressure swing adsorption separation technology . 8
5.6 Separation with membranes . 9
5.7 Direct separation .10
5.8 Calcium looping .11
6 Overview and assessment .13
6.1 Assessment factors of CO capture technologies .13
2
6.2 Case study of technological and economic evaluation of CO2 capture technologies .14
6.3 Ability to retrofit existing cement plants with CO capture technologies .15
2
7 Final considerations .15
Bibliography .17
© ISO 2020 – All rights reserved PROOF/ÉPREUVE iii
---------------------- Page: 3 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular, the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www .iso .org/ directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www .iso .org/ patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation of the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), see www .iso .org/
iso/ foreword .html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 265, Carbon dioxide capture,
transportation, and geological storage.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www .iso .org/ members .html.
iv PROOF/ÉPREUVE © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 4 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
Introductions
Concrete is the most-used manufactured substance on the planet in terms of volume. For example,
it is used to build homes, schools, hospitals, workplaces, roads, railways and ports, and to create
infrastructure to provide clean water, sanitation and energy. These are important for quality of life,
public health, and social and economic well-being.
Raw materials for concrete are abundant and available in most parts of the world. Concrete is affordable,
strong, durable and resilient to fire, floods and pests. It has the flexibility to produce complex and
massive structures. There is currently no other material that is available in the quantities necessary to
meet the demand for buildings and infrastructure.
Cement is used to manufacture concrete. It is described as the glue that binds the aggregates together.
The demand for concrete, and therefore for cement, is expected to increase, by 12 % to 23 % by 2050
compared to 2014, as economies continue to grow, especially in Asia.
Increasing global population, urbanisation patterns and infrastructure development will increase
global cement production. The use of concrete and cement is expected to become more efficient, and
concrete pours at the application phase are expected to decrease. The cement sector faces the challenge
of meeting an increasing demand for its product while cutting direct CO emissions from its production
2
[7]
. The cement industry is a large emitter of CO worldwide. The industry is committed to reduce their
2
carbon footprint to meet the targets of the ‘Paris Agreement’ on climate change.
Process emissions arising from the production of cement clinker present a fundamental challenge to
decarbonization of cement. In normal cement production processes, these process emissions are in the
[1]
range of 500 kg CO /tonne clinker to 540 kg CO /tonne clinker , corresponding to 250 kg CO to 500 kg
2 2 2
CO per tonne of cement depending on the type of cement. Replacement of limestone as raw materials
2
with alternative raw materials with lower carbonate content can reduce these process emissions, but
availability of these alternatives is limited, and the replacement potential is also limited (depending on
required cement qualities).
Combustion emissions are another contributor to CO emissions in addition to the process emissions.
2
Replacement of carbon-based fuels by non carbon-based energy sources and thermal energy from
biomass sources (being considered as CO neutral) will contribute to lowering the carbon intensity of
2
the energy supply for the cement industry in the future.
One way to reduce CO emissions is capturing CO that is released in the production of cement (both
2 2
direct emissions during the production process and emissions related to local energy production).
CO capture is an emerging approach for CO abatement in the cement industry. It means that CO
2 2 2
arising from the combustion of fuels and from the treatment of raw materials could be captured and
permanently stored or re-used. The integration of CO capture equipment typically increases the
2
specific energy intensity of cement manufacture, as additional energy is needed to operate the CO
2
capture plant, followed by drying, purification and compression of the captured CO for transportation,
2
[7]
(geological) storage and or utilization . CO transportation, (geological) storage and utilization are
2
beyond the scope this document.
To date, no large-scale CO capturing technologies have been installed in the cement industry.
2
However, different technologies are under development to support the cement industry in achieving
their objectives. Various cement companies participate in one or more research, development and/or
demonstration projects in the field of CO capture. These projects provide useful information about the
2
application of the various technologies in the cement industry.
To facilitate the assessment and comparison of the different CO capturing technologies, this document
2
summarizes these technologies that are currently under development. This summary supplements and
updates the information provided in ISO/TR 27912:2016, Clause 10 on capture from cement production
processes. This document will inform the cement industry and their stakeholders on CO capture
2
technology options and other relevant aspects.
© ISO 2020 – All rights reserved PROOF/ÉPREUVE v
---------------------- Page: 5 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
[5]
CO capture will be an item of interest for all cement producers in the years to come . Currently,
2
[14]
about 2 000 cement plants with relevant CO emissions are operating worldwide with the majority
2
of these plants being located in Asia. CO capture implementation in the cement industry at global level
2
would need a transport and storage infrastructure to facilitate the decarbonization of cement plants
not located close to a geological storage facility or CO use facility. Together with the investments in CO
2 2
capture facilities, this will be a major cost factor for the cement industry.
vi PROOF/ÉPREUVE © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 6 ----------------------
TECHNICAL REPORT ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
Carbon dioxide capture — Overview of carbon dioxide
capture technologies in the cement industry
1 Scope
This document provides an overview of technologies that are under development to capture carbon
dioxide (CO ) that is generated during cement manufacture.
2
This document is intended to inform users about the different technologies, including the characteristics,
the maturity and the boundaries of these technologies.
This document is applicable to organizations involved in the cement industry and other stakeholders
(e.g. policy makers).
This document addresses technologies for CO capture that have potential applications in the cement
2
industry. This document does not address CO transport, CO storage or CO utilization.
2 2 2
2 Normative references
There are no normative references in this document.
3 Terms and definitions
For the purpose of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 27917 apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at http:// www .electropedia .org/
4 CO and the cement industry
2
4.1 Cement manufacture
Cement manufacture is a three-stage process: raw materials preparation, clinker production and clinker
grinding with other components to produce cement. Figure 1 illustrates the process of manufacturing
cement. Different raw materials are mixed and milled into a homogeneous powder, from which clinker
is produced in high-temperature kilns where direct emissions of CO occur. Calcium oxide from the
2
calcination of limestone is a precursor to the formation of calcium silicates that gives cement its
[7]
strength .
© ISO 2020 – All rights reserved PROOF/ÉPREUVE 1
---------------------- Page: 7 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
Key
1 quarrying raw materials 10 kiln
2 crushing limestone 11 calcination-burning raw meal to clinker
3 storage and pre-homogenization of raw material 12 cooling
4 other raw materials 13 clinker storage
5 raw mill 14 secondary additives
6 filter and chimney 15 cement mills
7 raw meal homogenization 16 cement storage
8 preheating 17 cement dispatch
9 pulverized coal 18 transportation by bulk or bags
[17]
Figure 1 — Cement manufacture
Clinker is ground together with gypsum to produce cement. Depending on the required technical
properties of the finished cement, other components, including fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace
slag and fine limestone, can also be ground together with clinker or blended to produce different
cement types. Cement can be produced at the kiln site, or at separate grinding or blending plants.
Blended cements or “combinations” can also be produced at the concrete plant. The cement making
process is complex – it requires control of the chemical formulation and involves multiple steps that
[7]
require specialised equipment .
2 PROOF/ÉPREUVE © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 8 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
4.2 CO emissions from the cement industry
2
4.2.1 Production process description
Figure 2 schematically shows the process steps of cement manufacture. There are two main sources of
direct CO emissions in the production process of cement:
2
— calcination of raw materials in the pyro-processing stage (60 %-70 % of direct CO emissions
2
resulting from the chemical breakdown of limestone when it is heated to high temperature); and
— combustion of kiln fuels (30 %-40 % of direct CO emissions).
2
Flue gas in the cement industry has a relatively high CO content (typically 20 % to about 30 % CO ).
2 2
Other CO sources include direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from non-kiln fuels (e.g. dryers for
2
cement constituents products, room heating, on-site transport and on-site power generation), and
indirect GHG emissions from e.g. external power production and transport. Apart from methane (CH )
4
[1]
and nitrous oxide (N 0), emissions of non-CO greenhouse gases are negligible .
2 2
Key
++ major CO emission source + minor CO emission source
2 2
[1]
Figure 2 — Process steps in cement manufacture with indication of CO emission sources
2
4.2.2 Process emissions from calcination
In the clinker production process, CO is released from the chemical decomposition of calcium
2
carbonates, magnesium carbonates and other carbonates (e.g. from limestone) into lime by heating up
the raw materials to above 900 °C:
© ISO 2020 – All rights reserved PROOF/ÉPREUVE 3
---------------------- Page: 9 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
CaCO + heat → CaO + CO
3 2
MgCO + heat → MgO + CO
3 2
This process is called "calcining" or "calcination". It results in direct CO emissions through the kiln
2
[1]
stack .
4.2.3 Combustion emissions
The cement industry traditionally uses various fossil fuels to operate cement kilns, including coal,
petroleum coke, fuel oil, and natural gas. Fuels derived from waste materials have become important
substitutes for traditional fossil fuels. These alternative fuels include fossil fuel-derived fractions such
as waste oil and plastics, as well as biomass-derived fractions such as waste wood and dewatered
sludge from wastewater treatment. Furthermore, fuels which contain both fossil and biogenic carbon
(mixed fuels) are increasingly used. Examples are (pre-treated) municipal and (pre-treated) industrial
wastes (containing plastics, textiles, paper, etc.) or waste tyres (containing natural rubber and synthetic
[1]
rubber) .
4.2.4 Emissions compared to other sectors
Due to the nature of the production process (combustion, calcination for limestone and the drying of
raw materials), the exhaust gas of a typical cement plant is significantly different from other production
processes (e.g. thermal power generation). This difference is characterized by the cement exhaust gas
conditions, such as flue gas composition, temperature, and dust and moisture content. Consequently,
(standard) CO capture technologies are not necessarily applicable in the cement industry.
2
4.3 CO purification after capture
2
For CO transport, CO storage and or CO utilization, purity levels above 96 % CO are recommended.
2 2 2 2
Different approaches are available to increase the CO -product purity level. A common approach is to add
2
extra adsorption stages with recycling of the low-grade side stream. High-pressure flash separation can
reduce investment and or energy use. High-pressure flash separation can be attractive, as the produced
CO flow will be compressed before transport. Similarly, separation by low-temperature liquefaction of
2
CO can be attractive, as the product can be in a liquid state which is suitable for transport by ship or
2
can easily be compressed with low energy penalty. Purification of the captured CO is not specifically
2
addressed in this document.
4.4 Abatement technologies in general
For decades, several CO emission abatement technologies and measures have been used in the cement
2
[7]
industry to reduce the process and combustion emissions. They generally fall into four categories :
a) Improving energy efficiency: deploying existing state-of-the-art technologies in new cement plants
and retrofitting existing facilities to improve energy performance levels when economically viable.
b) Switching to alternative fuels (fuels that are less carbon intensive than conventional fuels):
promoting the use of biomass and waste materials as fuels in cement kilns to offset the consumption
of fossil fuels. Utilizing wastes, including biogenic and non-biogenic waste sources, which would
otherwise be sent to a landfill site, burnt in incinerators or improperly destroyed.
c) Reducing the clinker to cement ratio: increasing the use of blended materials and the market
deployment of blended cements, to decrease the amount of clinker required per tonne of cement or
per cubic metre of concrete produced.
d) Using emerging and innovative technologies that:
— contribute to the decarbonisation of electricity generation by adopting waste heat recovery
technologies to generate electricity from recovered thermal energy, which would otherwise be
4 PROOF/ÉPREUVE © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 10 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
lost, and support the adoption of renewable-based power generation technologies, such as solar
thermal power.
— integrate carbon dioxide capture into the cement manufacturing process for long-lasting or
permanent storage;
— integrate carbon dioxide capture and re-use for new products, including recarbonation of
concrete and mineralisation of (recycled) aggregates.
The CO emissions reduction impact of these levers is not always additive since they individually
2
affect the potential for emissions reductions of other options. For instance, the use of alternative fuels
generally requires greater specific thermal energy and electricity due to their higher moisture content
than fossil fuels, the operation of the kiln with increased input of ambient air compared to conventional
[7]
fossil fuels and the pre-treatment of alternative fuels .
5 Overview of CO capture technologies
2
5.1 Absorption with amines
The principle of post-combustion technologies is the separation of CO from flue gases after combustion.
2
Flue gases are normally at atmospheric pressure and high temperatures. CO is removed from a mixture
2
of primarily nitrogen, oxygen and water with flue gas impurities such as SOx, NOx and particulates.
Gas separation by absorption relies on the principle that CO can be selectively, and reversibly, removed
2
from the flue gas with a chemically reactive liquid in an absorption column. The CO -rich flow is then
2
transferred to a desorption column/stripper and heated up to release the CO . The released CO is dried,
2 2
purified and compressed while the regenerated absorbent is cooled and returned to the absorption
column. A schematic representation of the absorptive CO capture is shown in Figure 3.
2
In chemical absorption post-combustion capture, aqueous amine solutions are often used to chemically
bond CO to the amines. Absorption liquids based on monoethanolamine (MEA) are first generation and
2
still widely used for CO separation having high selectivity, fast reaction rates and low cost. MEA has a
2
[6]
thermal energy requirement for regeneration of absorbent of at least 3 MJ/kgCO . In cement plants,
2
the thermal energy is provided via waste heat recovery and or an external unit. Equipment corrosion
when using MEA solutions is an issue as well as oxidative degradation. Amine-based post-combustion
processes require a prior clean-up (desulfurization and denitrification) as amines will react with SOx
and NOx. These aspects increase the plant footprint as well as the capital and operating costs. Reported
[21]
MEA requirements are between 0,5 kg MEA/tonne CO and 3,1 kg MEA/tonne CO .
2 2
Improved amine solutions, e.g. based on sterically hindered amines and amino acid salts, which require
a lower regeneration temperature, are non-corrosive to carbon steel at 130 °C in the presence of oxygen
and have a better resistance to degradation, and are also commercially available.
© ISO 2020 – All rights reserved PROOF/ÉPREUVE 5
---------------------- Page: 11 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
Key
gas 5 desorportion column/stripper
liquid 6 reboiler
1 flue gas 7 stack
2 cooler 8 transport/storage
3 absorption column 9 low-pressure steam
4 lean-rich heat exchanger
[6]
Figure 3 — Schematic representation of absorptive CO capture
2
The technology was evaluated in the period 2013 to 2015 for the cement application at the Norcem
cement plant in Brevik (Norway). During this pilot trial, a slipstream from the kiln flue gas was treated
with an amine technology prototype. The amine solution showed good stability and a capture ratio of
90 % was obtained. The energy for the capture system was provided by waste heat from the cement
[15]
plant .
Next generation amine based CO capture processes with demixing solvents show improved absorption
2
properties of CO , leading to significant capture cost reduction compared to the standard 30 % MEA
2
[8]
process .
5.2 Absorption with chilled ammonia
Another feasible approach for the capture of CO is the chilled ammonia process. This approach
2
uses ammonia/ammonium carbonate as the absorbent and the capture process causes ammonium
bicarbonate to precipitate as a solid. Although ammonia is a cheap solvent, with a low energy
requirement for regeneration and insensitivity to flue gas impurities, the process requires refrigeration
facilities to cool the flue gas to less than 10 °C. In addition, complex washing in the column heads is
required as NH is a fugitive solvent and extra measures needs to be employed to prevent escape of
3
NH into the atmosphere. Furthermore, ammonium bicarbonate precipitating in the solvent should be
3
[6]
separated from the circulating solvent using a hydro cyclone . Recent projects have shown that the
precipitation of ammonium bicarbonate can be avoided by selecting other process conditions in the
absorber. There is also a risk of explosion associated with the dry CO -NH reaction (explosion limit for
2 3
[6]
NH3 is 15 % - 28 %) .
The chilled ammonia process has been demonstrated at the CO Technology Centre Mongstad (Norway)
2
[7]
. The absorber, direct contact cooler, and water wash were tested specifically for (synthetic) cement
[19]
flue gas in the CEMCAP project at GE's plant in Växjö (Sweden) .
5.3 Sorbent-based adsorption technologies
Sorbent-based processes separate and recover CO by a cyclic, thermal swing, adsorption-desorption
2
process similar to the conventional solvent processes. Solid sorbents are considered promising,
6 PROOF/ÉPREUVE © ISO 2020 – All rights reserved
---------------------- Page: 12 ----------------------
ISO/TR 27922:2020(E)
because they can exhibit high CO loadings, have low heat capacities, are typically less corrosive, and
2
avoid toxicity/volatility issues associated with liquid solvent systems. Supported amine sorbents
can be particularly attractive and have the potential to reduce the regeneration needed to carry out
CO capture from industrial exhaust gases. Generally, adsorption technologies, like pressure swing
2
adsorption (see 5.5) or temperature swing adsorption, deliver good CO removal (above 90 %), but
2
lower CO -production purity (below 90 %) in the product.
2
The adsorption technology has also attracted the interest of the cement industry and has been evaluated
in a pilot plant installation in the Norcem plant in Brevik (Norway). Pilot-scale tests and process
simulations carried out in 2016 resulted in a significant increase in capital expenditures (CAPEX) and
[19]
operational expenditures (OPEX), due to a poorer sorbent performance than anticipated .
5.4 Oxy-fuel combustion technology
The oxy-fuel technology relies on pure oxygen instead of ambient air for combustion. To enable this, the
nitrogen is removed from ambient air in a separation unit and the remaining oxygen is supplied to the
[6]
kiln. Consequently, the concentration of CO in the flue gas significantly increases . The gas properties
2
are significantly different from those in a conventional kiln operation which has a corresponding impact
on the clinker burning process. Additionally, the theoretical flame temperature in the sintering zone
increases, the flame becomes shorter and brighter compared to combustion in ambient air. To maintain
an appropriate flame temperature, part of the flue gases should be recycled. Thus, the recirculation rate
adjusts the combustion temperature. Figure 4 shows the oxy-fuel process with recircula
...
Questions, Comments and Discussion
Ask us and Technical Secretary will try to provide an answer. You can facilitate discussion about the standard in here.