SIST EN 62271-207:2008
(Main)High-voltage switchgear and controlgear -- Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-insulated switchgear assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear -- Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-insulated switchgear assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV
This International Standard applies to switchgear assemblies for alternating current of rated voltages above 52 kV for indoor and outdoor installations, including their supporting structure rigidly connected to the ground, and does not cover the seismic qualification of live tank circuit breakers. Switchgear assemblies do have typically low centers of gravity, e.g. gasinsulated switchgear (GIS). For switchgear with higher gravity levels, e.g. live tank circuit breakers, the IEC 62271-300 is applicable. Where switchgear assemblies are not ground-mounted, e.g. in a building, conditions for applications are subject to agreement between users and manufacturers. The seismic qualification of the switchgear assemblies takes into account any auxiliary and control equipment either directly mounted or as a separate structure. This standard provides procedures to seismically qualify ground-mounted switchgear assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV. The seismic qualification of the switchgear assemblies is only performed upon request. This standard specifies seismic severity levels and gives a choice of methods that may be applied to demonstrate the performance of high-voltage switchgear assemblies for which seismic qualification is required. The final seismic analysis shall be performed by assuming that the switchgear is installed on firm ground.
Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen -- Teil 207: Erdbebenqualifikation für gasisolierte Schaltgerätekombinationen mit Bemessungsspannungen über 52 kV
Appareillage à haute tension -- Partie 207: Qualification sismique pour ensembles d'appareillages à isolation gazeuse pour des niveaux de tension assignée supérieurs à 52 kV
La présente Norme internationale s'applique aux ensembles d'appareillages à courant alternatif de tension assignée supérieure à 52 kV, installés à l'intérieur ou à l'extérieur, en incluant leurs châssis-supports montés rigidement au sol. Cette norme ne couvre pas les qualifications sismiques des disjoncteurs à cuve sous tension. Les ensembles d'appareillages ont généralement des centres de gravité bas, comme par exemple les appareillages à isolation gazeuse (GIS, gas-insulated switchgear). Cette première édition de la CEI 62271-207 annule et remplace la première édition de la CEI 62271-2 et constitue une révision technique. La modification par rapport à la CEI 62271-2 est la suivante: -la tension assignée minimale a passé de 72,5 kV à supérieure à 52 kV
Visokonapetosne stikalne naprave 207. del: Sizmična (potresna) kvalifikacija plinsko izoliranih stikalnih sestavov za naznačene vrednosti nad 52 kV(IEC 62271-207:2007)
General Information
Relations
Standards Content (Sample)
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN 62271-207:2008
01-januar-2008
1DGRPHãþD
SIST EN 62271-2:2003
9LVRNRQDSHWRVQHVWLNDOQHQDSDUDYHGHO 6L]PLþQD SRWUHVQD NYDOLILNDFLMD
SOLQVNRL]ROLUDQLKVWLNDOQLKVHVWDYRY]DQD]QDþHQHYUHGQRVWLQDGN9 ,(&
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear -- Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-
insulated switchgear assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV (IEC 62271-207:2007)
Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte und -Schaltanlagen - Teil 207: Erdbebenqualifikation für
gasisolierte Schaltgerätekombinationen mit Bemessungsspannungen über 52 kV (IEC
62271-207:2007)
Appareillage a haute tension -- Partie 207: Qualification sismique pour ensembles
d'appareillage a isolation gazeuse pour des niveaux de tension assignée supérieurs a 52
kV (IEC 62271-207:2007)
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN 62271-207:2007
ICS:
29.130.10
SIST EN 62271-207:2008 en,fr
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
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EUROPEAN STANDARD
EN 62271-207
NORME EUROPÉENNE
October 2007
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
ICS 29.130.10 Supersedes EN 62271-2:2003
English version
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear -
Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-insulated switchgear assemblies
for rated voltages above 52 kV
(IEC 62271-207:2007)
Appareillage à haute tension - Hochspannungs-Schaltgeräte
Partie 207: Qualification sismique und -Schaltanlagen -
pour ensembles d'appareillages
Teil 207: Erdbebenqualifikation für
à isolation gazeuse pour des niveaux gasisolierte Schaltgerätekombinationen
de tension assignée supérieurs à 52 kV mit Bemessungsspannungen über 52 kV
(CEI 62271-207:2007) (IEC 62271-207:2007)
This European Standard was approved by CENELEC on 2007-10-01. CENELEC members are bound to comply
with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard
the status of a national standard without any alteration.
Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national standards may be obtained on
application to the Central Secretariat or to any CENELEC member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other
language made by translation under the responsibility of a CENELEC member into its own language and notified
to the Central Secretariat has the same status as the official versions.
CENELEC members are the national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
CENELEC
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique
Europäisches Komitee für Elektrotechnische Normung
Central Secretariat: rue de Stassart 35, B - 1050 Brussels
© 2007 CENELEC - All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved worldwide for CENELEC members.
Ref. No. EN 62271-207:2007 E
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EN 62271-207:2007 – 2 –
Foreword
The text of document 17C/407/FDIS, future edition 1 of IEC 62271-207, prepared by SC 17C,
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies, of IEC TC 17, Switchgear and controlgear, was
submitted to the IEC-CENELEC parallel vote and was approved by CENELEC as EN 62271-207 on
2007-10-01.
This European Standard supersedes EN 62271-2:2003.
The change from EN 62271-2:2003 is as follows:
– the minimum voltage rating was changed from “72,5 kV” to “above 52 kV”.
The following dates were fixed:
– latest date by which the EN has to be implemented
at national level by publication of an identical
national standard or by endorsement (dop) 2008-07-01
– latest date by which the national standards conflicting
with the EN have to be withdrawn (dow) 2010-10-01
Annex ZA has been added by CENELEC.
__________
Endorsement notice
The text of the International Standard IEC 62271-207:2007 was approved by CENELEC as a European
Standard without any modification.
__________
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– 3 – EN 62271-207:2007
Annex ZA
(normative)
Normative references to international publications
with their corresponding European publications
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.
NOTE When an international publication has been modified by common modifications, indicated by (mod), the relevant EN/HD
applies.
Publication Year Title EN/HD Year
1) 2)
IEC 60068-2-47 – Environmental testing - EN 60068-2-47 2005
Part 2-47: Tests - Mounting of specimens for
vibration, impact and similar dynamic tests
1) 2)
IEC 60068-2-57 – Environmental testing - EN 60068-2-57 2000
Part 2-57: Tests - Test Ff: Vibration - Time-
history method
IEC 60068-3-3 1991 Environmental testing - EN 60068-3-3 1993
Part 3: Guidance - Seismic test methods for
equipments
1) 2)
IEC 60694 – Common specifications for high-voltage EN 60694 1996
switchgear and controlgear standards + corr. May 1999
1) 2)
IEC 62271-203 – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - EN 62271-203 2004
Part 203: Gas-insulated metal-enclosed
switchgear for rated voltages above 52 kV
1)
Undated reference.
2)
Valid edition at date of issue.
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IEC 62271-207
Edition 1.0 2007-08
INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD
NORME
INTERNATIONALE
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –
Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-insulated switchgear assemblies for
rated voltages above 52 kV
Appareillage à haute tension –
Partie 207: Qualification sismique pour ensembles d'appareillages à isolation
gazeuse pour des niveaux de tension assignée supérieurs à 52 kV
INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
COMMISSION
ELECTROTECHNIQUE
PRICE CODE
INTERNATIONALE
T
CODE PRIX
ICS 29.130.10 ISBN 2-8318-9282-1
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD.4
1 Scope and object.6
2 Normative references .6
3 Terms and definitions .7
4 Seismic qualification requirements .7
4.1 General .7
4.2 Preliminary analysis .7
4.2.1 Selection of the representative test-set.7
4.2.2 Mathematical model of the test-set .7
5 Severities .8
6 Qualification by test.8
6.1 Introduction .8
6.2 Mounting .8
6.3 Measurements.9
6.4 Frequency range .9
6.5 Test severity .9
6.5.1 General .9
6.5.2 Parameters for time-history excitation.9
6.6 Testing .9
6.6.1 Test directions.9
6.6.2 Test sequence.9
7 Qualification by combined test and numerical analysis .10
7.1 Introduction .10
7.2 Vibrational and functional data .11
7.3 Numerical analysis .11
7.3.1 General .11
7.3.2 Numerical analysis by the acceleration time-history method .11
7.3.3 Modal and spectrum analysis using the required response spectrum
(RRS) .12
7.3.4 Static coefficient analysis .12
8 Evaluation of the seismic qualification .12
8.1 Combination of stresses .12
8.2 Acceptance criteria of the seismic test.13
8.3 Functional evaluation of the test results .13
8.4 Allowable stresses .13
9 Documentation .13
9.1 Information for seismic qualification.13
9.2 Test report .13
9.3 Analysis report .14
Annex A (normative) Characterization of the test-set .18
Annex B (informative) Criteria for seismic adequacy of gas-insulated metal-enclosed
switchgear .21
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62271-207 © IEC:2007 – 3 –
Bibliography.24
Figure 1 – RRS for ground-mounted switchgear assemblies – Qualification level: AF5;
2
ZPA = 5 m/s (0,5 g).15
Figure 2 – RRS for ground-mounted switchgear assemblies – Qualification level: AF3;
2
ZPA = 3 m/s (0,3 g).16
Figure 3 – RRS for ground-mounted switchgear assemblies – Qualification level: AF2;
2
ZPA = 2 m/s (0,2 g).17
Figure A.1 – Monogram for the determination of equivalent damping ratio .20
Table 1 – Seismic qualification levels for switchgear assemblies – Horizontal severities .8
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– 4 – 62271-207 © IEC:2007
INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION
____________
HIGH-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROLGEAR –
Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-insulated
switchgear assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV
FOREWORD
1) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising
all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, IEC publishes International Standards, Technical Specifications,
Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications (PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as “IEC
Publication(s)”). Their preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested
in the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-
governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. IEC collaborates closely
with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by
agreement between the two organizations.
2) The formal decisions or agreements of IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an international
consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation from all
interested IEC National Committees.
3) IEC Publications have the form of recommendations for international use and are accepted by IEC National
Committees in that sense. While all reasonable efforts are made to ensure that the technical content of IEC
Publications is accurate, IEC cannot be held responsible for the way in which they are used or for any
misinterpretation by any end user.
4) In order to promote international uniformity, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC Publications
transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional publications. Any divergence
between any IEC Publication and the corresponding national or regional publication shall be clearly indicated in
the latter.
5) IEC provides no marking procedure to indicate its approval and cannot be rendered responsible for any
equipment declared to be in conformity with an IEC Publication.
6) All users should ensure that they have the latest edition of this publication.
7) No liability shall attach to IEC or its directors, employees, servants or agents including individual experts and
members of its technical committees and IEC National Committees for any personal injury, property damage or
other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether direct or indirect, or for costs (including legal fees) and
expenses arising out of the publication, use of, or reliance upon, this IEC Publication or any other IEC
Publications.
8) Attention is drawn to the Normative references cited in this publication. Use of the referenced publications is
indispensable for the correct application of this publication.
9) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this IEC Publication may be the subject of
patent rights. IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard IEC 62271-207 has been prepared by subcommittee 17C: High-voltage
switchgear and controlgear assemblies, of IEC technical committee 17: Switchgear and
controlgear.
The text of this standard is based on the following documents:
FDIS Report on voting
17C/407/FDIS 17C/415/RVD
Full information on the voting for the approval of this standard can be found in the report on
voting indicated in the above table.
This first edition of IEC 62271-207 cancels and replaces the first edition of IEC 62271-2 and
constitutes a technical revision.
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62271-207 © IEC:2007 – 5 –
The change from IEC 62271-2 is as follows:
– the minimum voltage rating was changed from 72,5 kV to above 52 kV;
This publication has been drafted in accordance with the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
A list of all the parts in the IEC 62271 series, under the general title High-voltage switchgear
and controlgear, can be found on the IEC website.
The committee has decided that the contents of this publication will remain unchanged until
the maintenance result date indicated on the IEC web site under "http://webstore.iec.ch" in
the data related to the specific publication. At this date, the publication will be
• reconfirmed;
• withdrawn;
• replaced by a revised edition, or
• amended.
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– 6 – 62271-207 © IEC:2007
HIGH-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROLGEAR –
Part 207: Seismic qualification for gas-insulated
switchgear assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV
1 Scope and object
This International Standard applies to switchgear assemblies for alternating current of rated
voltages above 52 kV for indoor and outdoor installations, including their supporting structure
rigidly connected to the ground, and does not cover the seismic qualification of live tank
circuit breakers. Switchgear assemblies do have typically low centers of gravity, e.g. gas-
insulated switchgear (GIS).
For switchgear with higher gravity levels, e.g. live tank circuit breakers, the IEC 62271-300 is
applicable.
Where switchgear assemblies are not ground-mounted, e.g. in a building, conditions for
applications are subject to agreement between users and manufacturers.
The seismic qualification of the switchgear assemblies takes into account any auxiliary and
control equipment either directly mounted or as a separate structure.
This standard provides procedures to seismically qualify ground-mounted switchgear
assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV.
The seismic qualification of the switchgear assemblies is only performed upon request.
This standard specifies seismic severity levels and gives a choice of methods that may be
applied to demonstrate the performance of high-voltage switchgear assemblies for which
seismic qualification is required.
The final seismic analysis shall be performed by assuming that the switchgear is installed on
firm ground.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document.
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition
of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
IEC 60068-2-47, Environmental testing – Part 2-47: Test – Mounting of specimens for
vibration, impact and similar dynamic tests
IEC 60068-2-57, Environmental testing – Part 2-57: Tests – Test Ff: Vibration – Time-history
method
IEC 60068-3-3:1991, Environmental testing – Part 3: Guidance – Seismic test methods for
equipments
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62271-207 © IEC:2007 – 7 –
IEC 62271-203, High-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 203: Gas-insulated metal-
enclosed switchgear for rated voltages above 52 kV
IEC 60694, Common specifications for high-voltage switchgear and controlgear standards
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions in IEC 60068-3-3,
IEC 62271-203 and IEC 60694 apply.
4 Seismic qualification requirements
4.1 General
The seismic qualification shall demonstrate the ability of the switchgear assemblies to
withstand seismic stress.
No failure on the main circuits, the control and auxiliary circuit, including the relevant
mounting structures, shall occur.
Permanent deformations are acceptable provided that they do not impair the functionality of
the equipment. The equipment shall properly operate after the seismic event as defined in 8.2
and 8.3.
NOTE In the USA the evaluation of the seismic qualifications is conducted according to IEEE 693.
4.2 Preliminary analysis
4.2.1 Selection of the representative test-set
Due to practical reasons concerned with the available experimental facilities, the seismic
qualification of switchgear assemblies can require the definition and the choice of different
sub-sets which still meaningfully represent the whole system for the purpose of structural and
functional checks.
Such test-sets shall include the switching devices with their relevant operating mechanism
and control equipment, and their electrical and mechanical interfaces.
It is recommended
– to test generic components; to test the worst case components, such as those with the
highest load and center of gravity.
– to identify the dynamic behaviour of the plant (natural frequencies and damping ratios)
through the experimental activities of Annex A.
4.2.2 Mathematical model of the test-set
On the basis of technical information concerning the design characteristics of the substation,
a three-dimensional model of the test-set shall be created. Such a model shall take into
consideration the presence of actual compartments and of their supporting structures, and
shall have sufficient sensitivity to describe the dynamic behaviour of the test-set in the
frequency range being studied.
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– 8 – 62271-207 © IEC:2007
5 Severities
The severity levels shall be chosen from Table 1.
Table 1 – Seismic qualification levels for switchgear assemblies –
Horizontal severities
Qualification Required response Zero period acceleration
level spectrum (RRS) (ZPA)
2
m/s
AF5 Figure 1 5
AF3 Figure 2 3
AF2 Figure 3 2
For vertical severities the direction factor is 0,5 (see IEC 60068-3-3).
NOTE 1 The required response spectrum of qualification level AF5 covers partly, in the range of predominant
seismic frequency of 1 Hz to 35 Hz, the following response spectra: Endesa, Edelca, USA/NRC RG 1.60, Newmark
2 2
Design Response Spectra (scaled to 5 m/s ), Nema (5 m/s maximum foundation acceleration), Dept. of Water &
Power Los Angeles, San Diego SDG & E Imperial Substation.
NOTE 2 Information on the correlation between seismic qualification levels and different seismic scales is given in
IEC 60068-3-3.
6 Qualification by test
6.1 Introduction
The test procedure for qualification of a test-set shall be in accordance with IEC 60068-3-3.
The qualification shall be carried out on representative test sets, as described in 4.2.1.
If the auxiliary and control equipment or other parts of the equipment are dynamically
uncoupled, they may be qualified independently.
If a test-set cannot be tested with its supporting structure (e.g., due to its size), the dynamic
contribution of the structure shall be determined by analysis and accounted for in the test.
The time-history test method is to be preferred, since it more closely simulates actual
conditions, particularly if the behaviour of the test-set is not linear. The test method shall be in
accordance with IEC 60068-2-57.
6.2 Mounting
The test-set shall be mounted as in service including dampers (if any).
The horizontal orientation of the test-set shall be in the direction of excitation acting along its
two main orthogonal axes.
Any fixtures or connections required only for testing shall not affect the dynamic behaviour of
the test-set.
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62271-207 © IEC:2007 – 9 –
The method of mounting of the test-set shall be documented and shall include a description of
any interposing fixtures and connections (see IEC 60068-2-47).
6.3 Measurements
Measurements shall be performed in accordance with IEC 60068-3-3 and shall include
– vibration motion of components where maximum deflections and significant relative
displacements are expected;
– strains on critical elements (e.g. bushings, flanges, enclosures and support structures).
6.4 Frequency range
The frequency range shall be 0,5 Hz to 35 Hz. The frequency range is applied to the resonant
frequency search test and the generation of artificial earthquake wave.
6.5 Test severity
6.5.1 General
The test severity shall be chosen in accordance with Clause 5.
The recommended required response spectra are given in Figures 1 to 3 for the different
seismic qualification levels. The curves relate to 2 %, 5 %, 10 % and 20 % or more damping
ratio of the switchgear assemblies. If damping factor is unknown, 2 % damping is applied.
Spectra for different damping values may be obtained by linear interpolation.
6.5.2 Parameters for time-history excitation
The total duration of the time-history shall be about 30 s, of which the strong part shall be not
less than 6 s. The strong part is the section of the time history with the highest accelerations.
6.6 Testing
6.6.1 Test directions
The test directions shall be chosen according to IEC 60068-3-3.
In some cases, the effect of the vertical acceleration results in negligible stresses and the
vertical excitation may be omitted. In such cases justification for the omission of the vertical
component shall be provided.
6.6.2 Test sequence
6.6.2.1 General
The test sequence shall be as follows:
– functional checks before testing;
– vibration response investigation (required to determine critical frequencies and damping
ratios and/or for analysis);
– seismic qualification test;
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– 10 – 62271-207 © IEC:2007
– functional checks after testing.
6.6.2.2 Functional checks
Before and after the tests, the following operating characteristics or settings shall be recorded
or evaluated (when applicable) at the rated supply voltage and operating pressure:
a) closing time;
b) opening time;
c) time spread between units of one pole;
d) time spread between poles (if multipole tested);
e) gas and/or liquid tightness;
f) resistance measurement of the main current path.
6.6.2.3 Vibration response investigation
The resonant frequency search test, damping measurement test shall be carried out
according to IEC 60068-3-3 over the frequency range stated in 6.5.
6.6.2.4 Seismic qualification test
The test shall be performed by applying one of the procedures stated in the flow charts of
Appendix A of IEC 60068-3-3, depending on the test facilities.
The test shall be performed once at the level chosen in Clause 5.
During the seismic test the following parameters shall be recorded:
– strains on critical elements (e.g. bushings, flanges, enclosures and support structures);
– deflection of components where significant displacements are expected;
– electrical continuity of the main circuit (if applicable);
– electrical continuity of the auxiliary and control circuit at the rated voltage;
– acceleration.
7 Qualification by combined test and numerical analysis
7.1 Introduction
The method may be used
– to qualify switchgear assemblies already tested under different seismic conditions;
– to qualify switchgear assemblies similar to assemblies already tested but which include
modifications influencing the dynamic behaviour (e.g. change in the arrangement of the
assemblies, or in the mass of components);
– to qualify switchgear assemblies if their vibrational and functional data are known;
– to qualify switchgear assemblies which cannot be qualified by testing alone (e.g. because
of their size and/or complexity).
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62271-207 © IEC:2007 – 11 –
7.2 Vibrational and functional data
Vibrational data (damping ratios, critical frequencies, stresses of critical elements as a
function of input acceleration) for analysis shall be obtained by one of the following:
a) a dynamic test of a similar test-set;
b) a dynamic test at reduced test levels;
c) determination of critical frequencies and damping ratios by other tests such as free
oscillation tests or low level excitation (see Annex A).
Functional data may be obtained from a previous test performed on a similar test-set.
7.3 Numerical analysis
7.3.1 General
The general procedure is as follows:
a) to establish, using experimental data stated in 7.2, a mathematical model of switchgear
assemblies in order to assess their dynamic characteristics. Considering the modularity of
switchgear assemblies, the mathematical model implemented and calibrated for the test-
set may be extended to a complete substation, provided that the right adaptations, related
to the structural differences existing for the different modules, are considered;
b) to calibrate the mathematical model by taking into account the non-linearities of the
dynamic response of the test-set assessed during the experimental activity described in
Annex A;
c) to determine the response, in the frequency range stated in 6.5, using either of the
methods described in the following subclauses, but other methods may be used if they are
properly justified.
7.3.2 Numerical analysis by the acceleration time-history method
When the seismic analysis is carried out by the time-history method, the ground motion
acceleration time-histories shall comply with the RRS (see Table 1). Two types of
superimposition ma
...
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