ASTM F2747-19
(Guide)Standard Guide for Construction of Sand-based Rootzones for Golf Putting Greens and Tees
Standard Guide for Construction of Sand-based Rootzones for Golf Putting Greens and Tees
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 A dense, uniform, smooth and vigorously (or healthy) growing natural turfgrass golf green or tee provides the ideal and preferred putting or teeing surface for golf. Sand is commonly used to construct high performance putting green and tee rootzone systems. Sand is chosen as a primary construction material due to its compaction resistance and improved drainage and aeration compared to other soil materials. A loamy soil that may provide a more stable surface and enhanced growing media compared to sand under optimal or normal conditions will quickly compact and deteriorate in condition if used in periods of excessive soil moisture, such as during or following a rain event. A properly constructed sand-based rootzone on the other hand will resist compaction even during wet periods. Even when compacted, sands will retain an enhanced drainage and aeration state compared to native soil rootzones under the same level of traffic. As such, sand-based rootzones are more conducive to providing an all-weather type of putting or teeing surface. Once compacted, sands are also easier to decompact with the use of mechanical aeration equipment.
4.2 Properties of both the soil and grass plants must be considered in planning, constructing, and maintaining a high quality putting green or tee installation. Turfgrasses utilized must be adapted to the local growing conditions and be capable of forming a thick, dense, turf cover at the desired mowing height. Unvegetated sand is not inherently stable and therefore it is imperative that grasses are utilized to withstand the rigors of play. Sand does however have incredible load bearing capacity and if a dense, uniform turf cover is maintained the sand-based system can provide a firm and uniform playing surface.
4.3 A successful sand-based rootzone system is dependent upon the proper selection of materials to use in the project. The proper selection of sand, organic amendments, soil, and gravel is of vital concern to the performance ...
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers techniques that are appropriate for the construction of high performance sand-based rootzones for golf greens and tees. This guide provides guidance for the selection of materials, including soil, sand, gravel, peat, etc., for use in designing and constructing sand-based golf turf rootzones.
1.2 Decisions in selecting construction and maintenance techniques are influenced by existing soil types, climatic factors, level of play, intensity and frequency of use, equipment available, budget and training, and the ability of management personnel.
1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by t...
General Information
- Status
- Published
- Publication Date
- 30-Sep-2019
- Technical Committee
- F08 - Sports Equipment, Playing Surfaces, and Facilities
- Drafting Committee
- F08.64 - Natural Playing Surfaces
Relations
- Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2019
- Effective Date
- 01-Nov-2023
- Effective Date
- 01-Apr-2020
- Effective Date
- 01-Mar-2020
- Effective Date
- 15-Jan-2020
- Effective Date
- 15-Jan-2020
- Effective Date
- 01-May-2019
- Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2018
- Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2018
- Refers
ASTM F2060-00(2018) - Standard Guide for Maintaining Cool Season Turfgrasses on Athletic Fields - Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2018
- Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2018
- Refers
ASTM F2269-11(2018) - Standard Guide for Maintaining Warm Season Turfgrasses on Athletic Fields - Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2018
- Effective Date
- 01-Oct-2018
- Effective Date
- 01-Jul-2018
- Effective Date
- 01-May-2017
Overview
ASTM F2747-19: Standard Guide for Construction of Sand-based Rootzones for Golf Putting Greens and Tees is an internationally recognized standard developed by ASTM International. This guide provides foundational techniques and best practices for the construction of high-performance sand-based rootzones used in golf putting greens and tees. Sand-based systems have become the preferred choice for high-traffic areas like golf courses due to their superior drainage characteristics, resistance to compaction, and the ability to maintain a firm, uniform playing surface under a variety of climatic conditions.
This standard emphasizes the importance of material selection-particularly sand, soil, gravel, and organic amendments-and gives in-depth guidance on site preparation, installation, and quality control. Its scope is not prescriptive; rather, it offers a structured collection of information for making informed decisions during planning, construction, and maintenance.
Key Topics
Selection of Materials: Guidance on choosing appropriate sands, gravels, soils, peat, and other amendments is central to the rootzone's performance. Sand is highlighted for its drainage and aeration capabilities, but proper blending and quality control are necessary to ensure consistency and stability.
Construction Procedures: The document outlines step-by-step procedures, including surveying and staking the site, preparing and compacting the subgrade, installing sub-surface drainage and irrigation systems, and blending/installing the rootzone mix.
Drainage Design: Proper design and construction of both surface and subsurface drainage systems are detailed, ensuring all-weather playability and rootzone longevity.
Turfgrass Selection and Establishment: Emphasis is placed on selecting turfgrass varieties suited to local conditions, capable of thriving under the planned maintenance and environmental stressors.
Maintenance Considerations: Maintenance practices such as mowing, irrigation, fertilization, and mechanical aeration are integral for sustaining high-performance turf on sand-based rootzones.
Quality Control (QC) Programs: The standard underscores the need for robust QC protocols during material selection, blending, and installation to minimize variability and optimize system performance.
Applications
ASTM F2747-19 is highly relevant to golf course architects, contractors, agronomists, and turf managers involved in new construction or renovation of putting greens and tees. Typical applications include:
- Golf course putting green and tee construction: Building new sand-based rootzone systems to achieve dense, healthy, and fast-draining playing surfaces.
- Renovation of existing greens and tees: Upgrading conventional or poorly draining rootzones to sand-based systems for improved year-round play.
- Sports field construction: While focused on golf, the guidance is also valuable for other sports fields requiring durable turf cover and reliable drainage.
- Establishing performance standards: The document serves as a reference for contractual specifications and performance criteria in sports turf construction projects.
Related Standards
Several ASTM standards complement F2747-19, enhancing the overall approach to sand-based rootzone design and installation:
- ASTM F1632 – Particle Size Analysis and Sand Shape Grading of Golf Course Putting Green and Sports Field Rootzone Mixes
- ASTM F1815 – Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Water Retention, Porosity, and Bulk Density of Athletic Field Rootzones
- ASTM C88 – Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
- ASTM C131 – Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
- ASTM D653 and F2651 – Terminology relating to Soil and Turfgrass Characteristics
- ASTM F2060, F2269 – Maintenance guides for cool and warm season turfgrasses
By adhering to ASTM F2747-19 and its related standards, professionals ensure the construction of top-quality, durable, and resilient sand-based rootzones that meet the high demands of modern golf courses and sports facilities.
Frequently Asked Questions
ASTM F2747-19 is a guide published by ASTM International. Its full title is "Standard Guide for Construction of Sand-based Rootzones for Golf Putting Greens and Tees". This standard covers: SIGNIFICANCE AND USE 4.1 A dense, uniform, smooth and vigorously (or healthy) growing natural turfgrass golf green or tee provides the ideal and preferred putting or teeing surface for golf. Sand is commonly used to construct high performance putting green and tee rootzone systems. Sand is chosen as a primary construction material due to its compaction resistance and improved drainage and aeration compared to other soil materials. A loamy soil that may provide a more stable surface and enhanced growing media compared to sand under optimal or normal conditions will quickly compact and deteriorate in condition if used in periods of excessive soil moisture, such as during or following a rain event. A properly constructed sand-based rootzone on the other hand will resist compaction even during wet periods. Even when compacted, sands will retain an enhanced drainage and aeration state compared to native soil rootzones under the same level of traffic. As such, sand-based rootzones are more conducive to providing an all-weather type of putting or teeing surface. Once compacted, sands are also easier to decompact with the use of mechanical aeration equipment. 4.2 Properties of both the soil and grass plants must be considered in planning, constructing, and maintaining a high quality putting green or tee installation. Turfgrasses utilized must be adapted to the local growing conditions and be capable of forming a thick, dense, turf cover at the desired mowing height. Unvegetated sand is not inherently stable and therefore it is imperative that grasses are utilized to withstand the rigors of play. Sand does however have incredible load bearing capacity and if a dense, uniform turf cover is maintained the sand-based system can provide a firm and uniform playing surface. 4.3 A successful sand-based rootzone system is dependent upon the proper selection of materials to use in the project. The proper selection of sand, organic amendments, soil, and gravel is of vital concern to the performance ... SCOPE 1.1 This guide covers techniques that are appropriate for the construction of high performance sand-based rootzones for golf greens and tees. This guide provides guidance for the selection of materials, including soil, sand, gravel, peat, etc., for use in designing and constructing sand-based golf turf rootzones. 1.2 Decisions in selecting construction and maintenance techniques are influenced by existing soil types, climatic factors, level of play, intensity and frequency of use, equipment available, budget and training, and the ability of management personnel. 1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process. 1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only. 1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by t...
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE 4.1 A dense, uniform, smooth and vigorously (or healthy) growing natural turfgrass golf green or tee provides the ideal and preferred putting or teeing surface for golf. Sand is commonly used to construct high performance putting green and tee rootzone systems. Sand is chosen as a primary construction material due to its compaction resistance and improved drainage and aeration compared to other soil materials. A loamy soil that may provide a more stable surface and enhanced growing media compared to sand under optimal or normal conditions will quickly compact and deteriorate in condition if used in periods of excessive soil moisture, such as during or following a rain event. A properly constructed sand-based rootzone on the other hand will resist compaction even during wet periods. Even when compacted, sands will retain an enhanced drainage and aeration state compared to native soil rootzones under the same level of traffic. As such, sand-based rootzones are more conducive to providing an all-weather type of putting or teeing surface. Once compacted, sands are also easier to decompact with the use of mechanical aeration equipment. 4.2 Properties of both the soil and grass plants must be considered in planning, constructing, and maintaining a high quality putting green or tee installation. Turfgrasses utilized must be adapted to the local growing conditions and be capable of forming a thick, dense, turf cover at the desired mowing height. Unvegetated sand is not inherently stable and therefore it is imperative that grasses are utilized to withstand the rigors of play. Sand does however have incredible load bearing capacity and if a dense, uniform turf cover is maintained the sand-based system can provide a firm and uniform playing surface. 4.3 A successful sand-based rootzone system is dependent upon the proper selection of materials to use in the project. The proper selection of sand, organic amendments, soil, and gravel is of vital concern to the performance ... SCOPE 1.1 This guide covers techniques that are appropriate for the construction of high performance sand-based rootzones for golf greens and tees. This guide provides guidance for the selection of materials, including soil, sand, gravel, peat, etc., for use in designing and constructing sand-based golf turf rootzones. 1.2 Decisions in selecting construction and maintenance techniques are influenced by existing soil types, climatic factors, level of play, intensity and frequency of use, equipment available, budget and training, and the ability of management personnel. 1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process. 1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only. 1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by t...
ASTM F2747-19 is classified under the following ICS (International Classification for Standards) categories: 97.220.10 - Sports facilities. The ICS classification helps identify the subject area and facilitates finding related standards.
ASTM F2747-19 has the following relationships with other standards: It is inter standard links to ASTM F2747-10, ASTM D854-23, ASTM F2107-08(2020), ASTM D1997-20, ASTM D2974-20, ASTM D2974-20e1, ASTM D4972-19, ASTM F1647-11(2018), ASTM F1815-11(2018), ASTM F2060-00(2018), ASTM F1632-03(2018), ASTM F2269-11(2018), ASTM F2397-18, ASTM D4972-18, ASTM D4427-13(2017). Understanding these relationships helps ensure you are using the most current and applicable version of the standard.
ASTM F2747-19 is available in PDF format for immediate download after purchase. The document can be added to your cart and obtained through the secure checkout process. Digital delivery ensures instant access to the complete standard document.
Standards Content (Sample)
This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: F2747 − 19 An American National Standard
Standard Guide for
Construction of Sand-based Rootzones for Golf Putting
Greens and Tees
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F2747; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision.Anumber in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
1.1 Thisguidecoverstechniquesthatareappropriateforthe
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
construction of high performance sand-based rootzones for
golf greens and tees. This guide provides guidance for the
2. Referenced Documents
selection of materials, including soil, sand, gravel, peat, etc.,
2.1 ASTM Standards:
for use in designing and constructing sand-based golf turf
C88Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of
rootzones.
Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
1.2 Decisions in selecting construction and maintenance
C131Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-
techniques are influenced by existing soil types, climatic
SizeCoarseAggregatebyAbrasionandImpactintheLos
factors,levelofplay,intensityandfrequencyofuse,equipment
Angeles Machine
available, budget and training, and the ability of management
D422TestMethodforParticle-SizeAnalysisofSoils(With-
personnel.
drawn 2016)
1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information
D653Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
oraseriesofoptionsanddoesnotrecommendaspecificcourse
Fluids
of action. This document cannot replace education or experi-
D698Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Character-
ence and should be used in conjunction with professional
istics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft (600
judgment.Notallaspectsofthisguidemaybeapplicableinall
kN-m/m ))
circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or
D854Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given
Water Pycnometer
professional service must be judged, nor should this document
D1883Test Method for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of
be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique
Laboratory-Compacted Soils
aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document
D1997Test Method for Laboratory Determination of the
means only that the document has been approved through the
Fiber Content of Peat Samples by Dry Mass
ASTM consensus process.
D2944Practice of Sampling Processed Peat Materials
D2974Test Methods for Moisture,Ash, and Organic Matter
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
of Peat and Other Organic Soils
standard. The values given in parentheses are for information
D2976Test Method for pH of Peat Materials
only.
D2980 Test Method for Saturated Density, Moisture-
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the
Holding Capacity, and Porosity of Saturated Peat Materi-
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
als
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
D4427ClassificationofPeatSamplesbyLaboratoryTesting
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
D4972Test Methods for pH of Soils
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
F1632Test Method for Particle Size Analysis and Sand
1.6 This international standard was developed in accor-
Shape Grading of Golf Course Putting Green and Sports
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
Field Rootzone Mixes
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
1 2
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F08 on Sports For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Equipment, Playing Surfaces, and Facilities and is the direct responsibility of contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Subcommittee F08.64 on Natural Playing Surfaces. Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Current edition approved Oct. 1, 2019. Published November 2019. Originally the ASTM website.
approvedin2010.Lastpreviouseditionapprovedin2010asF2747–10,whichwas The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
withdrawn January 2019 and reinstated in October 2019. DOI: 10.1520/F2747-19. www.astm.org.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
F2747 − 19
F1647Test Methods for Organic Matter Content ofAthletic 4.3.1 During construction, consideration should be given to
Field Rootzone Mixes factors such as the physical and chemical properties of root-
F1815Test Methods for Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, zone materials, surface and internal drainage as well as stones
Water Retention, Porosity, and Bulk Density of Athletic and other debris.
Field Rootzones 4.3.2 Maintenance practices that influence playability in-
F2060Guide for Maintaining Cool Season Turfgrasses on clude mowing, irrigation, fertilization, and mechanical aera-
Athletic Fields tion. These factors are addressed in other standards (Guides
F2107Guide for Construction and Maintenance of Skinned F2060, F2269, and F2397).
Areas on Baseball and Softball Fields
4.4 Those responsible for the design, construction, or
F2269Guide for Maintaining Warm Season Turfgrasses on
maintenance, or a combination thereof, of golf putting greens
Athletic Fields
and tees will benefit from this guide.
F2397Specification for Protective Headgear Used in Com-
4.5 Asuccessful project development depends upon proper
bative Sports
planning and upon the selection of and cooperation among
F2651Terminology Relating to Soil and Turfgrass Charac-
design and construction team members. A sand-based putting
teristics of Natural Playing Surfaces
green/tee rootzone project design team should include a golf
course architect/designer, an agronomist or soil scientist, or
3. Terminology
both, and an owner’s design representative. Additions to the
3.1 Definitions:
team during the construction phase should include an owner’s
3.1.1 Except as noted, soil related definitions are in accor-
project manager (often an expansion of role for the owner’s
dance with Terminologies D653 and F2651.
design representative), an owner’s quality control agent (often
the personnel that is employed in advance with the intent of
4. Significance and Use
becoming the finished project’s golf course superintendent/
4.1 A dense, uniform, smooth and vigorously (or healthy)
greenskeeper), an owner’s testing agent (often an expansion of
growing natural turfgrass golf green or tee provides the ideal
roles for the project’s agronomist/soil scientist) and the con-
and preferred putting or teeing surface for golf. Sand is
tractor.
commonly used to construct high performance putting green
4.5.1 Planning for projects must be conducted well in
and tee rootzone systems. Sand is chosen as a primary
advance of the intended construction date. Often this planning
construction material due to its compaction resistance and
requires numerous meetings to create a calendar of events,
improved drainage and aeration compared to other soil mate-
schedule, approvals, assessments, performance criteria, quality
rials.Aloamy soil that may provide a more stable surface and
control (QC) protocols, material sourcing, geotechnical
enhanced growing media compared to sand under optimal or
reports, and construction budgets.
normal conditions will quickly compact and deteriorate in
condition if used in periods of excessive soil moisture, such as NOTE 1—Other specifications on soils for golf green and putting green
construction that have been published were considered during the devel-
during or following a rain event. A properly constructed
opment of this standard.
sand-based rootzone on the other hand will resist compaction
even during wet periods. Even when compacted, sands will
5. Construction
retain an enhanced drainage and aeration state compared to
5.1 The steps involved in the construction of a new putting
native soil rootzones under the same level of traffic. As such,
green or tee include:
sand-based rootzones are more conducive to providing an
(1)Surveyandstakethesitetoestablishsubgradeandfinish
all-weather type of putting or teeing surface. Once compacted,
grade elevations,
sands are also easier to decompact with the use of mechanical
(2) Construct and prepare subgrade, subgrade being correct
aeration equipment.
and certified,
4.2 Properties of both the soil and grass plants must be
(3) Install subsurface drainage system,
considered in planning, constructing, and maintaining a high
(4) Frame out putting green/tee perimeter as appropriate,
quality putting green or tee installation. Turfgrasses utilized
(5) Install irrigation system (irrigation system may be
mustbeadaptedtothelocalgrowingconditionsandbecapable
installed prior to rootzone installation),
of forming a thick, dense, turf cover at the desired mowing
(6) Prepare for rootzone installation,
height. Unvegetated sand is not inherently stable and therefore
(a) secure suitable sand, properly tested and approved,
it is imperative that grasses are utilized to withstand the rigors
(b) blend any amendments with sand to project
of play. Sand does however have incredible load bearing
specifications, approve using QC program,
capacity and if a dense, uniform turf cover is maintained the
(c) install approved gravel (if included in design),
sand-based system can provide a firm and uniform playing
(7) Install rootzone blend,
surface.
(8) Bring green/tee to final grade and contour as per
4.3 A successful sand-based rootzone system is dependent specifications, compact to specifications,
upontheproperselectionofmaterialstouseintheproject.The (a)apre-plantfertilizerapplicationmaybeappliedatthis
proper selection of sand, organic amendments, soil, and gravel point as specified,
is of vital concern to the performance of the system. This (9) Establish turf by appropriate methods (seed, sprigs,
standard guide addresses these issues. plugs or sod),
F2747 − 19
NOTE 2—In planning and designing projects, consideration shall be
(10) Apply fertilizer as appropriate based upon soil test
given to the permeability of the rootzone when determining the slope of
recommendations, and
the finished surface and the need for adjacent surface drainage systems.
(11) Turf to be established based upon grow-in recommen-
Further consideration shall be given in cold climates where frost penetra-
dations from a competent agronomist for the turf species
tion may impact the permeability of the rootzone when determining the
utilized and the climate of the site.
slope of the finished surface and the need for adjacent surface drainage
systems. Generally, the need for improved surface drainage increases as
5.2 Survey and Stake—This procedure should be done to
the permeability of the rootzone decreases.
conform to project Golf Course Architect’s specifications as
appropriateforthegradecontour.Whenconstructingareplace-
5.4.3 Sub-Surface Drainage Material—Three recom-
ment green or tee, this step may be deleted or modified as
mended options exist for the use of drainage material. Option
appropriate. Care should be taken to protect staking during the
1: sand rootzone material is utilized to backfill around drain-
construction process.
lines within the drainage trenches. Option 2: gravel material is
5.3 Construct and Prepare Subgrade—Contour the sub-
utilized to backfill around drainlines in the drainage trenches.
grade to specifications at a suggested tolerance of +25 mm (1
Option 3: gravel is utilized to backfill around drainlines in
in.) within 3 m (10 ft) of linear direction as specified in 5.5.7.
drainage trenches and to form a drainage layer overlying the
The subgrade should be installed finished to a depth such to
subgradebeforeplacementofrootzonesandblend.Option3is
accommodate the final profile depth of rootzone and a gravel
the method recommended by the USGA for putting green
layer (if included). The subgrade should be compacted suffi-
installations. All backfill treatments shall be compacted to
ciently (suggested 85 % minimum to 90 % maximum standard
specifications prior to further installation procedures. It is
proctor density (Test Methods D698)) to prevent future set-
recommended that backfill for trench bottoms is installed and
tling. Subgrade should be designed to conform to the surface
compacted prior to installing drain pipe into the trenches. It is
contour of finished putting surface.
recommended that the trench bottom remain unobstructed and
5.4 Subsurface Drainage System—Many types of designs
no soil pilings, wood blocks, concrete or metal blocks are
exist for subsurface drainage with the most common including
utilized to permanently adjust and maintain the slope of
a grid or herringbone pattern. Most commonly used drainage
drainlines. Any blocks which were temporarily used for this
systems for sand-based putting greens and tees utilize perfo-
purpose must be removed from underneath the drainlines and
rated drainlines with 10 cm (4 in.) diameter in a 4.5 to 6 m (15
any cavities backfilled before proceeding. It is recommended
to 20 ft) spacing between drainline laterals. This spacing
that drainage trenches (bottom and sides ONLY) should be
typically depends upon site conditions such as height above
lined with a woven geosynthetic filter fabric to prevent
groundwater, surface grading, and soil type of the subgrade.
contamination (lateral movement of subgrade materials into
5.4.1 Drainline Trenches—Trenches constructed for drain-
trench fill). Geosynthetic filter fabric should NOT be used to
lines should be excavated into a properly prepared, graded and
cover the drainage trench. Many geosynthetic filter fabrics are
compactedsubgrade.Drainagetrenchesshouldbedeepenough
to conform to the drainage contours.All drainage trenches and prone (or designed) to plug from fine particulates as they
drainline installations should maintain a minimum positive “filter” them from passing through the fabric. Therefore, these
slope gradient of >0.5 % towards drainage outlets with trench
fabrics should never be used to wrap a drainline, cover a
bottoms compacted to subgrade specifications. Drainage exca-
drainagetrench,tocoveragraveldrainagelayer,ortoseparate
vationsshouldbemadesuchthataminimumof5cm(2in.)of
the rootzone from a gravel layer. Other geosynthetic fabrics
bedding material can be contained around the installed drain-
(non-woven, heat-set needle-punched geotextiles) which are
line (below, to each side, and above). For example, a 10 cm (4
designednottoclogmaybeusedwithcautionwithstudiesand
in.) diameter drainline installation will require a minimum
field experience having shown that these materials have been
dimension of 20 cm (8 in.) wide by 20 cm (8 in.) depth (for
used successfully for these applications. It is recommended
example, 10 cm drainline + (5 cm/side × 2 sides) = 20 cm; 10
that all drainlines are installed straight (without ‘snaking’)
cm drainline+5cmtop+5cm bottom = 20 cm). Once
withinthetrenches.Itisrecommendedthatsleeves(ofoversize
drainage trenches are excavated, all excavated material should
PVCpiping)shouldbeinstalledacrossthedrainagetrenchesat
be removed from the subgrade surface and disposed off the
appropriate points as indicated by the irrigation design to
green or tee construction site. The subgrade should have no
facilitate irrigation pipe installation at points where the irriga-
elevations of subgrade soil material such to hinder the flow of
tion line crosses over the drainage trenches.
water along the subgrade interface into the drainage trench.
5.4.3.1 Option 1—Rootzone sand (with or without other
Once drainage trenches have been excavated, the trench
rootzone amendments) may be utilized to backfill drainage
bottoms should be sufficiently compacted to the subgrade
trenches. If sand is utilized for this purpose, the drainage pipe
compaction specifications prior to installation of drainage
system. Subgrade shall be re-surveyed and certified prior to used in these installations must be of a type that has slitted
gravel or rootzone import. perforations with slit openings meeting a specification of
5.4.2 Surface Drainage—To maintain adequate surface
drainage, all green/tee installations should include a minimum
of 0.5 % slope gradient (contours) to remove water off of the
putting green/tee in case of a storm event with severe rainfall
intensity.
F2747 − 19
A,B
TABLE 1 Gravel Filter/Drainage Layer Specifications flow conditions typically only occur during intense or prolonged rainfall
events.Underunsaturatedconditions,theuseofagravellayerwillimpede
Performance Factor Criteria Acceptable
drainage and will serve to retain additional moisture within the rootzone
Value
Filtering Factors D of gravel/D of rootzone mix <5
profile. This condition is commonly referred to as a ‘perched’ or
15 85
and
‘suspended’watertable.Thewaterperchedintherootzoneattheinterface
D of gravel/D of rootzone mix <25
50 50
with the gravel will be retained in a condition nearing saturation. While
Permeability Factor D of gravel/D of rootzone mix $5
15 15
such conditions may be beneficial in terms of water conservation, care
Uniformity Factors D of gravel/D of gravel #2.5
90 15
mustbeexercisedinthedesignoftherootzonesystemsuchthatexcessive
>12 mm fraction 0 %
moisture is not retained that could lead to anaerobic rootzone conditions.
<2 mm fraction #10 %
Such conditions are common with poorly designed gravel underdrained
<1 mm fraction #5%
sand-based rootzone systems. If a gravel underdrain system is used, the
A
US Department of Defense, USACE. 1984. Drainage and Erosion Control -
design parameters should be adjusted to assure a minimum of 15 cm (6
Mobilization Construction, Chapter 5, Backfill for Subsurface Drains. Engineering
in.) of well aerated rootzone. If the capillary rise of salts or other
Manual EM 1110-3-136. US Government Print Office, Washington, DC. Also:
contaminantsfromthesubgradeareofconcernonaparticularproject,the
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/em1110-3-136/c-5.pdf
B
use of a gravel layer is recommended to prevent this occurrence.
USGA, Green Section. 1993. USGARecommendations ForAMethod Of Putting
Green Construction. USGA. Golf House, Far Hills, NJ. Also: http://www.usga.org/
(1) Determination of Well-Aerated Rootzone Conditions—
green/coned/greens/recommendations.html#gravel
Thissectionrelatestotheimplicationsofvariableprofiledepth
of rootzones.Awell-aerated rootzone is normally that portion
of the rootzone that retains >20 % air-filled porosity (AFP)
D sand.1.5
after gravitational drainage ceases (as determined at 30 cm
slot width
tension).To determine the depth of sand required to obtain the
to reduce the potential for particle migration into the drain-
desired well-aerated profile depth, a soil moisture retention
age system.
curve of the rootzone material must be determined. Consider-
ingthattheperchedwateraboveagravellayerwillberetained
5.4.3.2 Option 2—Gravel may be utilized to backfill drain-
at a tension of approximately 10 cm tension, the moisture
agetrenches.Ifgravelisusedforbackfill,itshouldconformto
retention status of the rootzone material should be considered
the specifications in Table 1 below. Soft gravel minerals (such
at tensions greater than 10 cm until the proportion of air-filled
as limestone, sandstone, or shale) are not acceptable for use
pores within the rootzone material reaches 20 % or greater.
and all questionable gravel material should be tested for
For example, let’s hypothesize that a soil moisture retention
weathering stability using the sulfate soundness test. (Test
curve shows that a material reaches 20 % AFP at 21 cm
MethodC88).Alossofmaterialgreaterthana12%byweight
tension. To provide a 15 cm well-aerated rootzone, our profile
isunacceptable.Likewise,anygravelmaterialthatissuspectin
depth would be 21 cm (AFP threshold tension) – 10 cm
its mechanical stability should be tested utilizing the LA
(tension of perched water) + 15 cm of well-aerated rootzone,
Abrasion test. (Test Method C131) A LAAbrasion test value
for a total rootzone depth of 26 cm. Moisture retention points
greater than 40 is unacceptable.
should be determined utilizing methodologies in Test Method
5.4.3.3 Option 3—Gravel may be utilized to backfill drain-
F1815.
age trenches and to form a drainage layer beneath the sand
rootzone. If gravel is used for this purpose, the same gravel
5.5 Sand-Based Rootzone—Sands for the rootzone shall
should be utilized for drainage trench backfill and the drainage
meet the performance specifications established in this guide.
layerandshouldconformtothespecificationsgiveninTable1
Additions of peat or soil, or both, may be included in small
below. Soft gravel minerals are not acceptable for use and all
proportions as part of the rootzone blend if uniformly blended
questionable gravel material should be tested for weathering
and as long as resultant blend meets the performance specifi-
stabilityusingthesulfatesoundnesstest.(TestMethodC88).A
cations established in this guide.
loss of material greater than a 12 % by weight is unacceptable.
5.5.1 Sand Type—Quartz sands are recommended; if a sand
Likewise, any gravel material that is suspect in its mechanical
containsmorethan5%calciumcarbonateequivalent,thesand
stability should be tested utilizing the LAAbrasion test. (Test
hasthepotentialforparticlecementationduetodissolutionand
Method C131) A LA Abrasion test value greater than 40 is
reprecipitation of carbonates. Other sands are not recom-
unacceptable.Agravel drainage layer should be a minimum of
mended due to their propensity to weather (by either mechani-
7.5 cm (3 in.) with 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in.) preferred. During
cal or chemical means, or both) over a relative short period of
installation, the gravel is typically dumped from the delivery
time (1 to 5 years). For example, granitic material often
trucksontheperimeterofthesiteandthendistributedoverthe
contains appreciable amounts of feldspar or mica which is
construction site by a small, tracked crawler tractor (or
much more readily subject to weathering. Caution should be
similar), being careful to avoid driving over and crushing the
given to sands that contain appreciable proportions of mica
drain lines. Gravel should be contoured and compacted to
minerals. Mica grains have a flat or plate-like morphology and
specifications at a suggested tolerance of +12.5 mm ( ⁄2 in.)
redistribution of these grains within a rootzone profile may
within 3 m (10 ft) of linear direction and as specified in 5.5.7.
create layers that impede drainage and aeration.
5.5.2 Particle Size Distribution—Particlesizeanalyses(Test
NOTE 3—If gravel is utilized as a drainage layer, it will improve the
drainage of the system under conditions of saturated flow only. Saturated
Methods D422 or F1632) are based on the oven-dried mass of
a weighed sample; a shaker is the preferred method of
dispersion to prevent fracturing of sand particles that may
Taylor, D. H., Nelson, S. D., and Williams, C. F., “Sub-Root Zone Layering:
falsely influence the sand size distribution. There are many
Effects on Water Retention in Sports Turf Soil Profiles,” Agron J., Vol. 85, pp.
626–630, 1993. published specifications within the turf industry for sand size
F2747 − 19
TABLE 3 Recommended Particle Size Distribution of Rootzone
distribution in sand-based rootzone constructions. Table 2 and
Sand In a Sand-Soil Rootzone Blend
Table 3 include recommended sand particle size distribution
Size Fraction Particle Diameter Range Specified Range (%)
(without amendments) but is not inclusive of all size distribu-
(mm)
tionsofsandsthatcouldbeusedtoproduceahighperformance
Gravel >4.75 0
sand-based green or tee. Table 2 is the recommended sand
Gravel 3.4 to 4.75 0
Fine Gravel 2.0 to 3.4 <5
specification for rootzones when the resultant blend is com-
Very Coarse Sand 1.0 to 2.0 <10
posed of a sand and peat mixture. Table 3 is the recommended
Coarse Sand 0.5 to 1.0 25 to 50
sand specification for rootzones when the resultant blend is Medium Sand 0.25 to 0.5 >25
Fine Sand 0.15 to 0.25 <10
composed of a sand and soil mixture (or sand-soil-peat
Very Fine Sand 0.05 to 0.15 <5
mixture).
Silt 0.002 to 0.05 <5
5.5.3 Sand Shape—Although acceptable sand-based root- Clay <0.002 <3
zonescanbeconstructedwithsandsofallshapes,thisfactoris
worth consideration in putting green/tee construction. Sand
shape is generally classed by angularity and sphericity.Angu-
then be prone to particle migration and subsequent accumula-
larity is characterized as well-rounded, rounded, subrounded,
tion in layers. Representative grains for all samples should be
subangular, angular and very angular. Sphericity is character-
examined regardless of source under 20 – 50× magnification
ized as high sphericity, medium sphericity, and low sphericity.
for sand size, shape and potential fracture planes.
Sand shape should be classified according to Fig.1 from Test
5.5.4 Rootzone Amendments—Two types of amendments
Method F1632. While no sand will have sand grains of a
are commonly included in a blend with sand that together
uniformshape,thereisnormallyapredominantshapeofgrains
makes up the rootzone material (also termed rootzone mix or
from a single sand source. The shape and dimension of sand
blend).Mostcommonlythiswouldincludeablendwithsoilor
grains affect its stability. For example, rounded grains are the
peat (or other organic material), or both.
leaststablebecausetheylackedgesnecessaryforgraintograin
5.5.4.1 Soil—Soils have been used for constructing sand-
interlock and as such the round sand grains tend to act like
based rootzones for greens and tee construction as well as
small ball bearings. Angular sands to have greater stability
sports field constructions. However, soil has become less
because they have the sharp edges that give grain-grain
commonly used compared to peat amendments as pre-
interlock and impart resistance to shear. Sands that have a
packaged peats have greater ease of handling of material and
predominance of grains that show extremes in angularity
the potential for less material variability. Soil used as a blend
(extremely angular or extremely round) that fit outside the
component of a sand-based rootzone construction provides
classification in Test Method F1632, should be avoided. Also
someenhancedcapacityformoistureandnutrientretentionand
extremely low sphericity particles (for example, plate-like
may improve the mechanical stability of the rootzone. Propor-
particles) should be avoided.
tions of soil in a high performance rootzone mix typically
5.5.3.1 Dune sand sources may contain sand grains that
rangefrom5to15%byvolume.Theamountofsoiltoinclude
haveinternalfractureplanes.Dunesandstendtohavethemost
in a blend depends upon the make-up of the soil component
extreme expression of fracture planes and this is a common
and the effects of the soil additions on physical performance
micromorphological identification feature for dune sands. The
characteristics of the resulting blend. Ideally, the soil compo-
fractureplanesdevelopduringthesaltationprocess.Underlow
nent would be one that is composed purely of clay (plastic,
energy (wind or gravity) events dune sands can become
clay-sized mineral). Clay minerals generally have good mois-
rounded as they roll and skip along the surface. However,
ture and nutrient retention capacities and may improve root-
during strong wind events the grains can be moved at a high
zone stability by enhanced cohesive properties. When plastic
velocitywherebythegrainsimpactinguponeachotherdevelop
clay mineral is properly included in a blend with sand in the
‘cracks’orfractureplaneswithinthegrain.Whenrootzonesare
appropriateproportionandproperlyblended,theclaywillcoat
constructed with these sands, traffic and other weathering
the sand and form bridges between sand grains without
factors may cause the grains to fracture along these planes
cloggingupthelargepores(interstitialporesorpackingvoids)
resulting in the formation of silt-size quartz grains which may
of the sand matrix. If a pure clay mineral source is used, many
sands will accommodate 10 to 15 % clay additions without
clogging. However, care must be used in the blending and
TABLE 2 Recommended Particle Size Distribution of Rootzone
Sand In a Sand-Peat Rootzone Blend
preparation process because a small increase in clay content
Size Fraction Particle Diameter Range Specified Range (%) can cause a drastic detrimental change in the performance of
(mm)
the rootzone. This is a primary reason for a well designed
Gravel >4.75 0
calibration and quality control program. Other soils may be
Gravel 3.4 to 4.75 0
Fine Gravel 2.0 to 3.4 <5 usedasacomponentofasand-basedrootzoneblendbutshould
Very Coarse Sand 1.0 to 2.0 <10
be restricted to those soil textures that are low in silt content.
Coarse Sand 0.5 to 1.0 25 to 50
Silt is normally a fine-grained, non-plastic soil material and is
Medium Sand 0.25 to 0.5 >25
Fine Sand 0.15 to 0.25 <15 subject to migration and layering. Soils that exhibit a silt to
Very Fine Sand 0.05 to 0.15 <8
clay ratio greater than 2 should not be used. Likewise, those
Silt 0.002 to 0.05 <5
soilswithafines(silt+veryfinesand+finesand)toclayratio
Clay <0.002 <3
greater than 5 should be avoided. Generally, soils containing
F2747 − 19
more than 6 % organic matter should not be used nor should may create the need for lime additions to the mix, and
anymucky-typesoils.Muckysoilsarethosehigh-organicsoils relatively low nitrogen (N) content and wide C/N ratio could
leadtoNtie-upbymicroorganismsandtheneedforadditional
in which the organic material is so decomposed that no
N fertilization.
recognizable plant parts are present and which soil also
(2)Potential problems encountered with fibric peats are
contains more mineral content than organic content. Peat may
reduced with hemic peats, which are denser, somewhat lower
be used to increase the organic matter content in a three-way
in acidity, higher in N content, and more readily mixed. Also
blend of sand-soil-peat.
sapric peats, or well-decomposed peats, have fewer problems
5.5.4.2 Peat—Peat is commonly used as an amending
withpH,Ncontent,andvolumeweight;however,theycontain
source in a sand-based rootzone. Proportions of peat included
more ash and some low quality sapric peats may contain
in a blend (usually 5 to 20 % by volume) should give an
mineralsoilsthatresultinunacceptablyhighashcontents.The
organic matter content of 0.3 to 2.0 % by mass.As with soils,
organic matter in sapric peats, already being in a somewhat
peat amendment adds water holding and nutrient retention
decomposed state, is more stable than organic matter in the
capacity, but will add little in terms of increased soil strength
more fibrous peats. Peats considered for inclusion in high
(cohesion). Peats can also slow water movement through
performance sand-based rootzones can be classified according
excessively drained sands. Finer peats, whether by decompo-
toClassificationD4427,andfurthertestedbymethodslistedin
sition or by finer grinding, generally have a greater effect on
Section 5.4.5.3. Suggested recommendations for peat/organic
slowing water movement. Three sources of peat have been
amendments for high performance sand-based rootzones are
used successfully to modify sands for rootzones. They are
given in Table 4.
mosspeats(sphagnumandhypnum),reed-sedgepeats(derived
NOTE4—Oftentheuseofcompostsareproposedassubstitutesforpeat
from reeds, sedges, marsh gras
...
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