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ASTM D6429-20

(Guide)

Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods

Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysical methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method to produce results under average field conditions when compared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A” rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple methods that can be successfully applied. There may also be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a lower cost. The final selection must be made considering site specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is critical to have an experienced professional make the final decision as to the method(s) selected.  
5.1.1 Benson (1)  provides one of the earlier guides to the application of geophysics to environmental problems.  
5.1.2 Ward (2) is a three-volume compendium that deals with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and environmental problems.  
5.1.3 Butler (3) provides detailed technical explanations of near-surface geophysical methods and includes several detailed case histories  
5.1.4 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual (4) provides introductory chapters for the methods of Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations. This manual can be downloaded for no charge from the Corps of Engineers website.  
5.1.5 Olhoeft (5) provides an expert system for helping select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites.  
5.1.6 The U.S. EPA (6) provides an excellent literature review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated sites.  
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:  
5.2.1 A primary factor affecting the accuracy of site investigation results is the number of test locations. Insufficient spatial sampling to adequately characterize the conditions at a site can result if the number of samples is too small. Interpolation bet...
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, and environmental site investigations and subsequent site characterization, as well as forensic and archaeological applications. These geophysical methods are rarely the sole method used in the site investigation and are often used for pre-screening to guide how and where drilling, sampling or other targeted in-situ testing are conducted. This guide does not describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Individual guides have been developed for many surface geophysical methods.  
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and pore fluids, as well as buried objects.  
1.3 This guide provides an overview of applications for which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-27)2 and with Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, D6285, D6430, D6431, D6432, D6820, D7046, and D7128, as well as Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Methods D4428/D4428M, D7400/D7400M, and G57.  
1.4 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references cited in this guide, should be consulted.  
1.5 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon many factors. One of the most important factors is the competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the method's theory, field procedures, and interpretation along with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to successful...

General Information

Status
Historical
Publication Date
31-Jul-2020
ICS
07.060 - Geology. Meteorology. Hydrology
Technical Committee
D18 - Soil and Rock
Drafting Committee
D18.01 - Surface and Subsurface Investigation
Current Stage
Ref Project

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ASTM D6429-20 - Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical MethodsASTM D6429-20 - Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
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ASTM D6429-20 - Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
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NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation: D6429 − 20
Standard Guide for
1
Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D6429; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope* the method’s theory, field procedures, and interpretation along
with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to
1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical
successfully complete a survey. Personnel not having special-
methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical,
ized training or experience should be cautious about using
hydrologic, and environmental site investigations and subse-
geophysical methods and should solicit assistance from quali-
quent site characterization, as well as forensic and archaeologi-
fied practitioners.
cal applications. These geophysical methods are rarely the sole
method used in the site investigation and are often used for 1.6 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded
pre-screening to guide how and where drilling, sampling or as standard. The values given in parentheses are for informa-
other targeted in-situ testing are conducted. This guide does not tion only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test
describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as noncon-
surveys. Individual guides have been developed for many formance with this standard.
surface geophysical methods.
1.7 This guide offers an organized collection of information
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and course of action. This document cannot replace education or
pore fluids, as well as buried objects. experience and should be used in conjunction with professional
judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
1.3 This guide provides an overview of applications for
circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to repre-
which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not
sent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of
address the details of the theory underlying specific methods,
a given professional service must be judged, nor should this
field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous
document be applied without consideration of a project’s many
references are included for that purpose and are considered an
unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this
essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of
2 document means only that the document has been approved
this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-27) and with
through the ASTM consensus process.
Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, D6285, D6430, D6431,
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the
D6432, D6820, D7046, and D7128, as well as Practices
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Methods D4428/D4428M,
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
D7400/D7400M, and G57.
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
1.4 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references
1.9 This international standard was developed in accor-
cited in this guide, should be consulted.
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
1.5 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
many factors. One of the most important factors is the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
2. Referenced Documents
3
1
2.1 ASTM Standards:
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.01 on Surface and Subsurface D420 Guide for Site Characterization for Engineering De-
Characterization.
sign and Construction Purposes
Current edition approved Aug. 1, 2020. Published September 2020. Originally
ɛ1
approved in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 2011 as D6429 – 99 (2011) ,
3
which was withdrawn in March 2020 and reinstated in August 2020. DOI: For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
10.1520/D6429-20.
...

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ASTM D6429-23(Guide)
Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysical methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method to produce results under average field conditions when compared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A” rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple methods that can be successfully applied. There may also be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a lower cost. Selection of the most appropriate method(s) must be made based on the scale and setting of the target. The final selection must be made considering site specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is critical to have a qualified professional make the final decision as to the method(s) selected.  
5.1.1 Benson et al (1)  provides one of the earlier guides to the application of geophysics to environmental problems.  
5.1.2 Ward (2) is a three-volume compendium that deals with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and environmental problems.  
5.1.3 Butler (3) provides detailed technical explanations of near-surface geophysical methods and includes several detailed case histories.  
5.1.4 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual (4) provides introductory chapters for the methods of Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations. This manual can be downloaded for no charge from the Corps of Engineers website.  
5.1.5 Olhoeft (5) provides an expert system for helping select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites.  
5.1.6 The U.S. EPA (6) provides an excellent literature review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated sites.  
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:  
5.2.1 Geophysical measurements provide a means of mapping lateral and vertical variations of one or more physical properties or monitoring temporal cha...
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1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, and environmental site investigations and subsequent site characterization, as well as forensic and archaeological applications. These geophysical methods are rarely the sole method used in the site investigation and are often used for pre-screening to guide how and where drilling, sampling or other targeted in situ testing are conducted. This guide does not describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Individual guides have been developed for many surface geophysical methods.  
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and pore fluids, as well as buried objects.  
1.3 This guide provides an overview of applications for which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-27)2 and with Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, D6285, D6430, D6431, D6432, D6820, D7046, and D7128, as well as Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Methods D4428/D4428M, D7400/D7400M, and G57.  
1.4 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references cited in this guide, should be consulted.  
1.5 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon many factors. One of the most important factors is the competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the method's theory, field procedures, and interpretation along with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to successful...

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ASTM D8122-21(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Determining Mass per Unit Area of Geohazard Nettings

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Using a geohazard netting as a medium to retain rock particles necessitates compatibility between it and the adjacent rock. This test method measures the mass per unit area of a geohazard netting which is often specified by design engineers as an indicator of a geohazard netting’s ability to stabilize and control the movement of loose rocks. Knowing a geohazard netting’s mass per unit area is also important in analyzing the anchoring required to support the mesh at the top of a soil or rock slope.  
5.2 This test method may also be used for quality control during the manufacturing process and quality assurance that material meets project or material specifications.
Note 1: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/inspection/etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
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1.1 This test method is an index test to determine the mass per unit area of geohazard nettings. The mass per unit area is a characteristic of a geohazard netting that contributes to its ability to stabilize and control the movement of loose rocks. There are many different types of geohazard nettings which necessitates a single standard by which all geohazard nettings may be measured.  
1.2 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are provided for information only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.2.1 It is common practice in the engineering/construction profession to concurrently use pounds to represent both a unit of mass (lbm) and of force (lbf). This practice implicitly combines two separate systems of units; the absolute and the gravitational systems. It is scientifically undesirable to combine the use of two separate sets of inch-pound units within a single standard. As stated, this standard includes the gravitational system of inch-pound units and does not use/present the slug unit of mass. However, the use of balances and scales recording pounds of mass (lbm) or recording density in lbm/ft3 shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.2.2 The terms density and unit weight are often used interchangeably. Density is mass per unit volume, whereas, unit weight is force per unit volume. In this standard, density is given only in SI units. After the density has been determined, the unit weight is calculated in SI or inch-pound units, or both.  
1.3 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026, unless superseded by this test method.  
1.3.1 The procedures used to specify how data are collected/recorded and calculated in the standard are regarded as the industry standard. In addition, they are representative of the significant digits that generally should be retained. The procedures used do not consider material variation, purpose for obtaining the data, special purpose studies, or any considerations for the user’s objectives; and it is common practice to increase or reduce significant digits of reported data to be commensurate with these considerations. It is beyond the scope of these test methods to consider significant digits used in analysis methods for engineering data.  
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ASTM D5881-20(Practice)
Standard Practice for (Analytical Procedures) Determining Transmissivity of Confined Nonleaky Aquifers by Critically Damped Well Response to Instantaneous Change in Head (Slug)

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
6.1 The assumptions of the physical system are given as follows:  
6.1.1 The aquifer is of uniform thickness, with impermeable upper and lower confining boundaries.  
6.1.2 The aquifer is of constant homogeneous porosity and matrix compressibility and constant homogeneous and isotropic hydraulic conductivity.  
6.1.3 The origin of the cylindrical coordinate system is taken to be on the well-bore axis at the top of the aquifer.  
6.1.4 The aquifer is fully screened.  
6.1.5 The well is 100 % efficient, that is, the skin factor, f, and dimensionless skin factor, σ, are zero.  
6.2 The assumptions made in defining the momentum balance are as follows:  
6.2.1 The average water velocity in the well is approximately constant over the well-bore section.  
6.2.2 Frictional head losses from flow in the well are negligible.  
6.2.3 Flow through the well screen is uniformly distributed over the entire aquifer thickness.  
6.2.4 Change in momentum from the water velocity changing from radial flow through the screen to vertical flow in the well are negligible.  
Note 1: Slug and pumping tests implicitly assume a porous medium. Fractured rock and carbonate settings may not provide meaningful data and information.
Note 2: The function of wells in any unconfined setting in a fractured terrain might make the determination of k problematic because the wells might only intersect tributary or subsidiary channels or conduits. The problems determining the k of a channel or conduit notwithstanding, the partial penetration of tributary channels may make a determination of a meaningful number difficult. If plots of k in carbonates and other fractured settings are made and compared, they may show no indication that there are conduits or channels present, except when with the lowest probability one maybe intersected by a borehole and can be verified, such problems are described by (5) Smart (1999). Additional guidance can be found in Guide D5717.
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1.1 This practice covers determination of transmissivity from the measurement of water-level response to a sudden change of water level in a well-aquifer system characterized as being critically damped or in the transition range from underdamped to overdamped. Underdamped response is characterized by oscillatory changes in water level; overdamped response is characterized by return of the water level to the initial static level in an approximately exponential manner. Overdamped response is covered in Guide D4043; underdamped response is covered in Practice D5785/D5785M, Guide D4043.  
1.2 The analytical procedure in this practice is used in conjunction with Guide D4043 and the field procedure in Test Method D4044/D4044M for collection of test data.  
1.3 Limitations—Slug tests are considered to provide an estimate of the transmissivity of an aquifer near the well screen. The method is applicable for systems in which the damping parameter, ζ, is within the range from 0.2 through 5.0. The assumptions of the method prescribe a fully penetrating well (a well open through the full thickness of the aquifer) in a confined, nonleaky aquifer.  
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ASTM D5912-20(Practice)
Standard Practice for (Analytical Procedure) Determining Hydraulic Conductivity of an Unconfined Aquifer by Overdamped Well Response to Instantaneous Change in Head (Slug)

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Assumptions of Solution:  
5.1.1 Drawdown (or mounding) of the water table around the well is negligible.  
5.1.2 Flow above the water table can be ignored.  
5.1.3 Head losses as the water enters or leaves the well are negligible.  
5.1.4 The aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic.
Note 6: Slug and pumping tests implicitly assume a porous medium. Fractured rock and carbonate settings may not provide meaningful data and information.  
5.2 Implications of Assumptions:  
5.2.1 The mathematical equations applied ignore inertial effects and assume that the water level returns to the static level in an approximate exponential manner.  
5.2.2 The geometric configuration of the well and aquifer are shown in Fig. 1, that is after Fig. 1 of Bouwer and Rice (1).  
Note 7: Short term refers to the duration of the slug test.
Note 8: The function of wells in any unconfined setting in a fractured terrain might make the determination of k problematic because the wells might only intersect tributary or subsidiary channels or conduits. The problems determining the k of a channel or conduit notwithstanding, the partial penetration of tributary channels may make a determination of a meaningful number difficult. If plots of k in carbonates and other fractured settings are made and compared, they may show no indication that there are conduits or channels present, except when with the lowest probability one maybe intersected by a borehole and can be verified, such problems are described by Smart (1999) (6). Additional guidance can be found in Guide D5717.
Note 9: The comparison of data from various methods on variable head permeability tests has been documented. Variation in instrumentation, assumptions and calculational methods will lead to differing results (7). Users should be familiar with the assumptions, instrumentation and calculational aspects of the test when evaluating the results (8).
Note 10: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependen...
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1.1 This practice covers the determination of hydraulic conductivity from the measurement of inertial force free (overdamped) response of a well-aquifer system to a sudden change in water level in a well. Inertial force free response of the water level in a well to a sudden change in water level is characterized by recovery to initial water level in an approximate exponential manner with negligible inertial effects.  
1.2 The analytical procedure in this practice is used in conjunction with the field procedure in Test Method D4044/D4044M for collection of test data.  
1.3 Limitations—Slug tests are considered to provide an estimate of hydraulic conductivity. The determination of storage coefficient is not practicable with this practice. Because the volume of aquifer material tested is small, the values obtained are representative of materials very near the open portion of the control well.  
Note 1: Slug tests are usually considered to provide estimates of the lower limit of the actual hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer because the test results are so heavily influenced by well efficiency and borehole skin effects near the open portion of the well. The portion of the aquifer that is tested by the slug test is limited to an area near the open portion of the well where the aquifer materials may have been altered during well installation, and therefore may significantly impact the test results. In some cases, the data may be misinterpreted and result in a higher estimate of hydraulic conductivity. This is due to the reliance on early time data that is reflective of the hydraulic conductivity of the filter pack surrounding the well. This effect was discussed by Bouwer (1).2 In addition, because of the reliance on early time data, in aquifers with medium to high hydraulic conductivity, the early time portion of the curve that is useful for this data analyses is too short (for example,  
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ASTM D5920/D5920M-20(Practice)
Standard Practice for (Analytical Procedure) Tests of Anisotropic Unconfined Aquifers by Neuman Method

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Assumptions:  
5.1.1 The control well discharges at a constant rate, Q.  
5.1.2 The control well, observation wells, and piezometers are of infinitesimal diameter.  
5.1.3 The unconfined aquifer is homogeneous and really extensive.  
5.1.4 Discharge from the control well is derived initially from elastic storage in the aquifer, and later from gravity drainage from the water table.  
5.1.5 The geometry of the aquifer, control well, observation wells, and piezometers is shown in Fig. 2. The geometry of the test wells should be adjusted depending on the parameters of interest.
FIG. 2 Cross Section Through a Discharging Well Screened in Part of an Unconfined Aquifer  
5.2 Implications of Assumptions:  
5.2.1 Use of the Neuman (1) method assumes the control well is of infinitesimal diameter. The storage in the control well may adversely affect drawdown measurements obtained in the early part of the test. See 5.2.2 of Practice D4106 for assistance in determining the duration of the effects of well-bore storage on drawdown.  
5.2.2 If drawdown is large compared with the initial saturated thickness of the aquifer, the late-time drawdown may need to be adjusted for the effect of the reduction in saturated thickness. Section 5.2.3 of Practice D4106 provides guidance in correcting for the reduction in saturated thickness. According to Neuman  (1) such adjustments should be made only for late-time values.  
5.3 Practice D3740 provides evaluation factors for the activities in this practice.
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SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers an analytical procedure for determining the transmissivity, storage coefficient, specific yield, and horizontal-to-vertical hydraulic conductivity ratio of an unconfined aquifer. It is used to analyze the drawdown of water levels in piezometers and partially or fully penetrating observation wells during pumping from a control well at a constant rate.  
1.2 The analytical procedure given in this practice is used in conjunction with Guide D4043 and Test Method D4050.  
1.3 The valid use of the Neuman method is limited to determination of transmissivities for aquifers in hydrogeologic settings with reasonable correspondence to the assumptions of the theory.  
1.4 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the standard. Reporting of test result in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.5 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026.  
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ASTM D6391-11(2020)(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity Using Borehole Infiltration

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method provides a means to measure the hydraulic conductivity of isotropic materials and the maximum vertical and minimum horizontal hydraulic conductivities of anisotropic materials, especially in the low ranges associated with fine-grained clayey soils, 1×10–7 m/s to 1×10–11 m/s.  
5.2 This test method is useful for measuring liquid flow through soil hydraulic barriers, such as compacted clay barriers used at waste containment facilities, for canal and reservoir liners, for seepage blankets, and for amended soil liners, such as those used for retention ponds or storage tanks. Due to the boundary condition assumptions used in deriving the equations for the limiting hydraulic conductivities, the thickness of the unit tested must be at least 600 mm. This requirement is increased to 800 mm if the material being tested is underlain by a material that is far less permeable.  
5.3 The soil layer being tested must have sufficient cohesion to stand open during excavation of the borehole.  
5.4 This test method provides a means to measure infiltration rate into a moderately large volume of soil. Tests on large volumes of soil can be more representative than tests on small volumes of soil. Multiple installations properly spaced provide a greater volume and an indication of spatial variability.  
5.5 The data obtained from this test method are most useful when the soil layer being tested has a uniform distribution of hydraulic conductivity and of pore space and when the upper and lower boundary conditions of the soil layer are well defined.  
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SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers field measurement of hydraulic conductivity (also referred to as coefficient of permeability) of porous materials using a cased borehole technique. When isotropic conditions can be assumed and a flush borehole is employed, the method yields the hydraulic conductivity of the porous material. When isotropic conditions cannot be assumed, the method yields limiting values of the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction (upper limit) if a single stage is conducted and the horizontal direction (lower limit) if a second stage is conducted. For anisotropic conditions, determination of the actual hydraulic conductivity requires further analysis by qualified personnel.  
1.2 This test method may be used for compacted fills or natural deposits, above or below the water table, that have a mean hydraulic conductivity less than or equal to 1×10–5 m/s (1×10–3 cm/s).  
1.3 Hydraulic conductivity greater than 1×10–5 m/s may be determined by ordinary borehole tests, for example, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 7310 (1)2; however, the resulting value is an apparent conductivity.  
1.4 For this test method, a distinction must be made between “saturated” (Ks) and “field-saturated” (Kfs) hydraulic conductivity. True saturated conditions seldom occur in the vadose zone except where impermeable layers result in the presence of perched water tables. During infiltration events or in the event of a leak from a lined pond, a “field-saturated” condition develops. True saturation does not occur due to entrapped air (2). The entrapped air prevents water from moving in air-filled pores, which may reduce the hydraulic conductivity measured in the field by as much as a factor of two compared with conditions when trapped air is not present (3). This test method develops the “field-saturated” condition.  
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ASTM D6432-19(Guide)
Standard Guide for Using the Surface Ground Penetrating Radar Method for Subsurface Investigation

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and data processing methods used to interpret geologic conditions, and to identify and provide locations of geologic anomalies and man-made objects with the GPR method. The GPR uses high-frequency EM waves (from 10 to 3000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. Energy is propagated downward into the ground from a transmitting antenna and is reflected back to a receiving antenna from subsurface boundaries between media possessing different EM properties. The reflected signals are recorded to produce a scan or trace of radar data. Typically, scans obtained as the antenna(s) are moved over the ground surface are placed side by side to produce a radar profile.  
5.1.1 The vertical scale of the radar profile is in units of two-way travel time, the time it takes for an EM wave to travel down to a reflector and back to the surface. The travel time may be converted to depth by relating it to on-site measurements or assumptions about the velocity of the radar waves in the subsurface materials.  
5.1.2 Vertical variations in propagation velocity due to changing EM properties of the subsurface can make it difficult to apply a linear time scale to the radar profile (Ulriksen (31)).  
5.2 Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:  
5.2.1 Two-Way Travel Time and Velocity—A GPR trace is the record of the amplitude of EM energy that has been reflected from interfaces between materials possessing different EM properties and recorded as a function of two-way travel time. To convert two-way times to depths, it is necessary to estimate or determine the propagation velocity of the EM pulses or waves. The relative permittivity of the material (εr) through which the EM pulse or wave propagates mostly determines the propagation velocity of the EM wave. The propagation velocity through the material is approximated using the following relationship (see full formula in Balanis (32)):
    where:
  c  ...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials using the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Method. GPR is most often employed as a technique that uses high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves (from 10 to 7000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. GPR detects changes in EM properties (dielectric permittivity, conductivity, and magnetic permeability), that in a geologic setting, are a function of soil and rock material, water content, and bulk density. Data are normally acquired using antennas placed on the ground surface or in boreholes. The transmitting antenna radiates EM waves that propagate in the subsurface and reflect from boundaries at which there are EM property contrasts. The receiving GPR antenna records the reflected waves over a selectable time range. The depths to the reflecting interfaces are calculated from the arrival times in the GPR data if the EM propagation velocity in the subsurface can be estimated or measured.  
1.1.2 GPR measurements as described in this guide are used in geologic, engineering, hydrologic, and environmental applications. The GPR method is used to map geologic conditions that include depth to bedrock, depth to the water table (Wright et al (1)2), depth and thickness of soil strata on land and under fresh water bodies (Beres and Haeni (2)), and the location of subsurface cavities and fractures in bedrock (Ulriksen (3) and Imse and Levine (4)). Other applications include the location of objects such as pipes, drums, tanks, cables, and boulders, mapping landfill and trench boundaries (Benson et al (5)), mapping contaminants (Cosgrave et al (6); Brewster and Annan (7); Daniels et al (8)), conducting archaeological (Vaughan (9)) and forensic investigations (Davenport et al (10)), inspection of brick, masonry, and concrete structures, roads and railroad trackbed studies (Ulrik...

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ASTM
ASTM D5878-19(Guide)
Standard Guides for Using Rock-Mass Classification Systems for Engineering Purposes

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The classification systems included in this standard and their respective applications are as follows:  
4.1.1 Rock Mass Rating System (RMR) or Geomechanics Classification—This system has been applied to tunneling, hard-rock mining, coal mining, stability of rock slopes, rock foundations, borability, rippability, dredgability, weatherability, and rock bolting.  
4.1.2 Rock Structure Rating System (RSR)—This system has been used in tunnel support and excavation and in other ground support work in mining and construction.  
4.1.3 The Q System or Norwegian Geotechnical Institute System (NGI)—This system has been applied to work on tunnels and chambers, rippability, excavatability, hydraulic erodibility, and seismic stability of roof-rock.  
4.1.4 The Unified Rock Classification System (URCS)—This system has been applied to work on foundations, methods of excavation, slope stability, uses of earth materials, blasting characteristics of earth materials, and transmission of groundwater.  
4.1.5 The Rock Material Field Classification System (RMFCS)—This system has been used mainly for applications involving shallow excavation, particularly with regard to hydraulic erodibility in earth spillways, excavatability, construction quality of rock, fluid transmission, and rock-mass stability (2).  
4.1.6 The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)—This system is used for both conventional (cyclical, such as drill-and-blast) and continuous (tunnel-boring machine or TBM) tunneling. This is a tunneling procedure in which design is extended into the construction phase by continued monitoring of rock displacement. Support requirements are revised to achieve stability (3).
Note 2: The Austrian standard (4) specifies methods of payment based on coding of excavation volume and means of support.  
4.1.7 The Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR)—This system applies to bedded coal-measure rocks, in particular with regard to their structural competence as influenced by discontinuities in the...
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1.1 These guides offer the selection of a suitable system of classification of rock mass for specific engineering purposes, such as tunneling and shaft-sinking, excavation of rock chambers, ground support, modification and stabilization of rock slopes, and preparation of foundations and abutments. These classification systems may also be of use in work on rippability of rock, quality of construction materials, and erosion resistance. Although widely used classification systems are treated in this standard, systems not included here may be more appropriate in some situations, and may be added to subsequent editions of this standard.  
1.2 The valid, effective use of this standard is contingent upon the prior complete definition of the engineering purposes to be served and on the complete and competent definition of the geology and hydrology of the engineering site. Further, the person or persons using this standard shall have had field experience in studying rock-mass behavior. An appropriate reference for geotechnical mapping of large underground openings in rock is provided by Guide D4879.  
1.3 This standard identifies the essential characteristics of seven classification systems. It does not include detailed guidance for application to all engineering purposes for which a particular system might be validly used. Detailed descriptions of the first five systems are presented in STP 984 (1),2 with abundant references to source literature. Details of two other classification systems and a listing of seven Japanese systems are also presented.  
1.4 The range of applications of each of the systems has grown since its inception. This standard summarizes the major fields of application up to this time of each of the seven classification systems.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to inch-pounds units that are provided for inf...

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ASTM
ASTM D3213-19(Practice)
Standard Practices for Handling, Storing, and Preparing Soft Intact Marine Soil

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Disturbance imparted to sediments after sampling can significantly affect some geotechnical properties. Careful practices need to be followed to minimize soil fabric changes caused from handling, transporting, storing, and preparing sediment specimens for testing.
Note 1: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/inspection, etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on may factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.  
5.2 The practices presented in this document should be used with soil that has a very soft or soft shear strength (undrained shear strength less than 25 kPa (3.6 psi)) consistency.
Note 2: Some soils that are obtained at or just below the seafloor quickly deform under their own weight if left unsupported. This type of behavior presents special problems for some types of testing. Special handling and preparation procedures are required under those circumstances. Tests, such as the handheld vane (D4648/D4648M) or miniature vane (D8121/D8121M), are sometimes performed at sea to minimize the effect of storage time and handling on soil properties. An undrained shear strength of less than 25 kPa was selected based on Terzaghi and Peck.3 They defined a soft saturated clay as having an undrained shear strength less than 25 kPa.  
5.3 These practices shall apply to specimens of naturally formed marine soil (that may or may not be fragile or highly sensitive) that will be used for density determination, consolidation, permeability testing or shear strength testing with or without stress-strain properties and volume change measurements (see Note 3). In addition, dy...
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1.1 These practices cover methods for project/cruise reporting, and handling, transporting and storing soft cohesive intact marine soil. Procedures for preparing soil specimens for triaxial strength, and consolidation testing are also presented.  
1.2 These practices may include the handling and transporting of sediment specimens contaminated with hazardous materials and samples subject to quarantine regulations.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are provided for information only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.4 These practices offer a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of these practices may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific precautionary statements are given in Sections 1, 2 and 7.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendat...

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ASTM
ASTM D4630-19(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Determining Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient of Low-Permeability Rocks by In Situ Measurements Using the Constant Head Injection Test

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Test Method—The constant pressure injection test method is used to determine the transmissivity and storativity of low-permeability formations surrounding packed-off intervals. Advantages of the method are: (1) it avoids the effect of well-bore storage, (2) it may be employed over a wide range of rock mass permeabilities, and (3) it is considerably shorter in duration than the conventional pump and slug tests used in more permeable rocks.  
5.2 Analysis—The transient water flow rate data obtained using the suggested test method are evaluated by the curve-matching technique described by Jacob and Lohman (1)4 and extended to analysis of single fractures by Doe et al. (2). If the water flow rate attains steady state, it may be used to calculate the transmissivity of the test interval (3).  
Note 2: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/inspection/etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
Note 3: The function of wells in any unconfined setting in a fractured terrain might make the determination of k problematic because the wells might only intersect tributary or subsidiary channels or conduits. The problems determining the k of a channel or conduit notwithstanding, the partial penetration of tributary channels may make determination of a meaningful number difficult. If plots of k in carbonates and other fractured settings are made and compared, they may show no indication that there are conduits or channels present, except when with the lowest probability one maybe intersected by a borehole and can be verified, such pr...
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1.1 This test method covers a field procedure for determining the transmissivity and storativity of geological formations having permeabilities lower than 10−3 μm2  (1 millidarcy) using constant head injection.  
1.2 The transmissivity and storativity values determined by this test method provide a good approximation of the capacity of the zone of interest to transmit water, if the test intervals are representative of the entire zone and the surrounding rock is fully water-saturated.  
1.3 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
Note 1: Unit Conversions—The permeability of a formation is often expressed in terms of the unit darcy (non-SI). A porous medium has a permeability of 1 Darcy when a fluid of viscosity 1 cp (1 mPa·s) flows through it at a rate of 1 cm3/s (10–6 m3/s)/1 cm2 (10–4 m2) cross-sectional area at a pressure differential of 1 atm (101.4 kPa)/1 cm (10 mm) of length. One Darcy corresponds to 0.987 μm2. For water as the flowing fluid at 20°C, a hydraulic conductivity of 9.66 μm/s corresponds to a permeability of 1 Darcy. Permeabilities may also be expressed as millidarcy (md), which is not an SI unit.  
1.4 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026.  
1.4.1 The procedures used to specify how data are collected/recorded or calculated, in this standard are regarded as the industry standard. In addition, they are representative of the significant digits that generally should be retained. The procedures used do not consider material variation, purpose for obtaining the data, special purpose studies, or any considerations for the user’s objectives; and it is common practice to increase or reduce significant digits of repor...

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