D18.01 - Surface and Subsurface Investigation

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysical methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method to produce results under average field conditions when compared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A” rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple methods that can be successfully applied. There may also be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a lower cost. Selection of the most appropriate method(s) must be made based on the scale and setting of the target. The final selection must be made considering site specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is critical to have a qualified professional make the final decision as to the method(s) selected.  
5.1.1 Benson et al (1)  provides one of the earlier guides to the application of geophysics to environmental problems.  
5.1.2 Ward (2) is a three-volume compendium that deals with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and environmental problems.  
5.1.3 Butler (3) provides detailed technical explanations of near-surface geophysical methods and includes several detailed case histories.  
5.1.4 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual (4) provides introductory chapters for the methods of Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations. This manual can be downloaded for no charge from the Corps of Engineers website.  
5.1.5 Olhoeft (5) provides an expert system for helping select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites.  
5.1.6 The U.S. EPA (6) provides an excellent literature review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated sites.  
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:  
5.2.1 Geophysical measurements provide a means of mapping lateral and vertical variations of one or more physical properties or monitoring temporal cha...
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1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, and environmental site investigations and subsequent site characterization, as well as forensic and archaeological applications. These geophysical methods are rarely the sole method used in the site investigation and are often used for pre-screening to guide how and where drilling, sampling or other targeted in situ testing are conducted. This guide does not describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Individual guides have been developed for many surface geophysical methods.  
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and pore fluids, as well as buried objects.  
1.3 This guide provides an overview of applications for which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-27)2 and with Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, D6285, D6430, D6431, D6432, D6820, D7046, and D7128, as well as Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Methods D4428/D4428M, D7400/D7400M, and G57.  
1.4 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references cited in this guide, should be consulted.  
1.5 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon many factors. One of the most important factors is the competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the method's theory, field procedures, and interpretation along with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to successful...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Spectral analysis of soils for agricultural use is being used worldwide to obtain rapid data on soil nutrients. for the purpose of agricultural management including fertilizer application and other amendments such as pH adjustment, organic supplements, etc. Satellite, aerial, and ground-based sampling methods are being used. This test method applies to ground-based, terrestrial field applications where samples are taken from the ground, generally in the root zone. Use of these rapid remote sensing techniques allow for more detailed and economic data acquisition than older cumbersome sampling and wet chemistry testing methods used in the past by soil scientists for soil nutrient evaluations.  
5.2 This test method describes procedures for sampling and testing of field soils using diffuse reflectance spectrometry using handheld portable spectrometers measuring spectra in visible and near infrared (vis-NR) using dried sieved or wet samples. There is a worldwide effort to collect spectral databases of soils. The procedures specified here follow procedures as outlined in the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) primer on Vis-NIR and MIR spectroscopy of soils (1)3. Other organizations such as IEEE are actively working on additional guidance documents that will be incorporated in future revisions of this test method.  
5.2.1 This standard describes the procedures (Section 12) for using hyperspectral sensor data to measure moisture content as a percentage, pH, Organic Matter (OM) as a percentage, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) measured in 10 cmol c /kg could hold 10 cmol of Na + cations (with 1 unit of charge per cation) per kilogram of soil, but only 5 cmol Ca 2+ (2 units of charge per cation), as well as micro and macro nutrients in soils measured in PPM (parts per million)or a percentage, including, but not limited to nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, boron, zinc, iron, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and manganese.  
5.2.2 Research has shown that t...
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1.1 This test method describes procedures for sampling and testing of soils obtained from ground-based samples using diffuse reflectance spectrometry using handheld portable spectrometers measuring spectra in visible and near infrared (vis-NR) and mid-infrared (MIR) range. The sensor can measure moisture content, PH, organic matter, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) as well as macro and micro elemental nutrients in parts per million (PPM) or percentage, including but not limited to nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, zinc, iron, boron, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and manganese.  
1.2 There are two methods that can be used to perform the test.  
1.2.1 Method A—The analysis is performed in the laboratory on the sample after the sample has been oven dried and sieved.  
1.2.2 Method B—The analysis is performed in the field on a moist sample after homogenization. After post-processing of multiple reflectance site data using methods A and B, the moisture content can be measured, and the spectral signature is normalized for moisture content.  
1.3 The limitation of this method is that the results of an individual test for elemental analysis would not be the same as exacting reference values from traditional wet chemical lab analysis used by soil scientists. Results of wet chemistry tests or tests from soil science libraries may be used to calibrate a specific site model comprised of many individual tests. Spectral data for organics has shown to be as accurate as conventional methods such as Test Methods D2974.  
1.4 For soil nutrient analysis the sample is not finely ground as in typical qualitative spectral analysis as outlined in standard Practice E1252. The spectrometer is checked periodically during testing using procedures in accordance with Guide E1866 performance testing.  
1.5 Moisture content is a preferred term in agricultural applications. For this standard, gravimetric water content may be measured in accordance wi...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This practice addresses coal mining geospatial data in general and is significant to the coal mining community because it provides uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to coal mining features.  
4.2 Some RA data for coal mining feature attributes may not have values. Those RAs may not collect those attributes as part of their regulatory program or those attributes may not be applicable within their area of responsibility. As a result, a national dataset of coal mining features may appear to be incomplete for those RAs.  
4.3 Within its area of exclusive jurisdiction, each RA is the ADS for the coal mining geospatial data that it creates and uses to regulate mining activity.  
4.4 Limitations of Use—Uses of a national dataset are limited by several factors affecting the completeness, currency, and accuracy, of various data sources.  
4.4.1 Completeness—Participation in the compilation of spatial data may not be uniform across RAs, which may affect completeness, both in terms of spatial data, and associated attributes. For some RAs, this standard may not be applicable because features described herein do not occur within their area of responsibility.  
4.4.2 Currency—Source data is subject to change as a result of regulatory actions that may change the geographical location, extent, or attributes of particular features which may not be reflected in the national dataset. If detailed information is needed for individual features, the appropriate RA should be contacted for additional information.  
4.4.3 Data compiled in accordance with this standard is not intended to be used as a primary source for evaluating risk or safety.  
4.4.4 Data compiled in accordance with this standard is intended for informative purposes; it is not authoritative.
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1.1 This practice defines a set of terms, procedures, and data required to define the accurate location and description of the minimum geospatial data for surface coal mining operations (CMO), underground coal mining extents, land reclamation and performance bond statuses, lands unsuitable for mining petitions (LUMP) and designated areas, coal spoil and refuse features, coal preparation plants, environmental resource monitoring locations (ERMLs), and postmining land uses.  
1.2 Units—The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulator limitations prior to use.  
1.3.1 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the adequacy of a professional service, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.4 Surface CMOs—As used in this practice, a surface CMO represents an area where coal removal, reclamation, and related supporting activities have occurred, is occurring, is pending authorization or is authorized by the Regulatory Authority (RA) within a defined surface CMO or any other unpermitted area that has been identified by the RA.  
1.4.1 This practice addresses coal mining geospatial data, interim permits, and permanent program permits. Each RA shall be the authoritative data source (ADS) for coal mining geospatial data.  
1.5 Underground Coal Mining Extents—This practice addresses underground coal mining extents that represent a...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This practice addresses AML PAs, PUs, Keyword Features, and Project Sites. This practice is significant as it provides for uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to the geographic location and description of AML sites located throughout the United States.  
4.2 This geospatial data standard will help ensure uniformity of data contributed by each RA and assist organizations in efforts to create, utilize, and share geospatial data. Use of this standard will result in organized and accessible data to support programmatic decisions and work plan development, increased awareness of AML problems, and better communication between RA, the public, industry, and other interested parties.  
4.3 The geospatial data may be served as a layer in a national dataset and map service.
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1.1 This practice covers the minimum elements for the accurate location and description of geospatial data for defining Abandoned Mine Land (AML) Problem Areas, Planning Units, Keyword Features, and Project Sites as originally defined by the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), through its Abandoned Mine Land Inventory Manual (Directive AML-1) under the jurisdiction of Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. These standards remain applicable to mining organizations that geospatially locate and identify AML sites, however these standards can be used for entities that are in beginning phases of mapping and identifying AML sites using protocol that is consistent with existing nomenclature.  
1.1.1 Abandoned mine lands consist of those lands and waters which were mined for coal or other minerals, or both, and abandoned or left in an inadequate condition of reclamation and for which there is no continuing reclamation responsibility for mitigation of adverse impacts to human health and safety or environmental resources.  
1.1.2 As used in this practice, an AML Problem Area (PA) represents a closed polygon boundary for a uniquely defined geographic area contained within an AML Planning Unit (PU). An AML PA is a subdivision of an AML PU that contains one or more AML keyword features together with impacted land or water resources or both. An AML PA should not cross PU boundaries.  
1.1.3 As used in this practice, an AML PU represents a closed polygon boundary of a uniquely defined geographic area identified by unique numbers and names. An entire WCU may be delineated as a single PU or subdivided into multiple PUs.  
1.1.4 As used in this practice, an AML Keyword Feature is a point, line, or polygon defining the location of a specific on-the-ground feature contained within an AML Problem Area (PA) as described in the AML Inventory Manual.  
1.1.5 As used in this practice, an AML Project Site is a closed polygon boundary for a uniquely defined geographic area that includes the area disturbed to achieve the reclamation. An AML Project Site may contain one or more AML keyword features together with impacted land or water resources or both.  
1.2 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.4 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts:  
5.1.1 All TDEM/TEM instruments are based on the concept that a time-varying magnetic field generated by a change in the current flowing in a large loop on the ground will cause current to flow in the earth below it (Fig. 3). In the typical TDEM/TEM system, these earth-induced currents are generated by abruptly terminating a steady current flowing in the transmitter loop (2). The currents induced in the earth material move downward and outward with time and, in a horizontally layered earth, the strength of the currents is directly related to the ground conductivity at that depth. These currents decay exponentially. The decay lasts microseconds, except in the cases of a highly conductive ore body or conductive layer when the decay can last up to a second. Hence, many measurements can be made in a short time period allowing the data quality to be improved by stacking.  
5.1.2 Most TDEM/TEM systems use a square wave transmitter current with the measurements taken during the off-time (Fig. 2) with the total measurement period of less than a minute. Because the strength of the signal depends on the induced current strength and secondary magnetic field, the depth of site investigation depends on the magnetic moment of the transmitter.  
5.1.3 A typical transient response, or receiver voltage measured, for a homogeneous subsurface (half-space) is shown in Fig. 4. The resistivity of the subsurface is obtained from the late stage response. If there are two horizontal layers with different resistivities, the response or receiver output voltage is similar to the curves shown in Fig. 5.  
5.2.8 Variations in temperature above freezing will affect resistivity measurements as a result of the temperature dependence of the resistivity of the pore fluid, which is of the order of 2 % per degree Celsius (1 % per degree Fahrenheit). Thus, data from measurements made in winter can be quite different from those made in summer.  
5.2.9 As the ground temperature decre...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide is one in a series of documents that describe geophysical site investigation methods.  
1.1.2 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials and their pore fluids using the Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) method. This method is also known as the Transient Electromagnetic (TEM) Method, and in this guide is referred to as the TDEM/TEM method. Time Domain and Transient refer to the measurement of a time-varying induced electromagnetic field.  
1.1.3 The TDEM/TEM method is applicable to the subsurface site investigation for a wide range of conditions. TDEM/TEM methods measure variations in the electrical resistivity (or the reciprocal, the electrical conductivity) of the subsurface soil or rock caused by both lateral and vertical variations in various physical properties of the soil or rock. By measuring both lateral and vertical changes in resistivity, variations in subsurface conditions can be determined.  
1.1.4 Electromagnetic measurements of resistivity as described in this guide are applied in geologic studies, geotechnical studies, hydrologic site investigations, and for mapping subsurface conditions at waste disposal sites (1).2 Resistivity measurements can be used to map geologic changes such as lithology, geological structure, fractures, stratigraphy, and depth to bedrock. In addition, measurement of resistivity can be applied to hydrologic site investigations such as the depth to water table, depth to aquitard, presence of coastal or inland groundwater salinity, and for the direct exploration for groundwater.  
1.1.5 This standard does not address the use of TDEM/TEM method for use as metal detectors or their use in unexploded ordnance (UXO) detection and characterization. While many of the principles apply the data acquisition and interpretation differ from those set forth in this...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Chronic Beryllium Disease (CBD) and Beryllium Sensitization (Be-S) caused by exposure to anthropogenic Beryllium (A-Be) are a continuing health concern in the nuclear and defense industries. The traditional worker protection strategy has been to compare total Be (T-Be) measurements taken in workplaces with appropriate limits or local background Be measurements. That strategy can be ineffective, however, where naturally occurring Be (N-Be) from local soils can be a non-negligible component of the measured T-Be. N-Be is not known to have adverse health effects. This MRM uses the ratio(s) of measurements of Be with measurements of one or more metals found in background materials, but not likely to be in facilities, to predict the amount of N-Be expected in individual samples based on the measurement(s) of the predictor metal(s) in those samples. The measured T-Be can be compared with the predictions to estimate the amount of A-Be present, if any.  
5.2 In order to use the MRM it is required to identify local sources of N-Be that can be credibly transported into facilities, along with a means of sampling those sources. It would be helpful also to have insight into the metal content of the soils at those sources, to facilitate the identification of candidate predictor metals. Regarding the latter, there are published databases describing the chemistry of surface soils in many regions; however, information found in those databases should be regarded as suggestive, due to the modified sample preparation and analysis methods currently expected to be used because of the need to digest high-fired BeO, one form of A-Be of concern.
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1.1 This guide describes a general approach to planning investigations in which the goal is to obtain background measurements of naturally occurring Beryllium (N-Be) along with one or more predictor metals in local soils, to be used in predicting the amount of N-Be expected in samples taken for evaluation using the Metal Ratio Method (MRM). Generally, systematic random sampling is recommended, after which the results are interpreted using statistical methods described in this guide.  
1.2 The total Be (T-Be) measured in evaluation samples can then be compared with the predicted N-Be to estimate the amount of anthropogenic Be (A-Be) present, if any. Several scenarios are discussed in which samples taken and analyzed for T-Be for worker or public protection purposes might include both N-Be and A-Be (see 6.1). This method can allow the N-Be and A-Be components of T-Be measurements to be estimated.  
1.3 Values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard guide is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the Wo...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and data processing methods used to interpret geologic conditions, and to identify and provide locations of geologic anomalies and man-made objects with the GPR method. The GPR uses high-frequency EM waves (from 10 to 3000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. Energy is propagated downward into the ground from a transmitting antenna and is reflected back to a receiving antenna from subsurface boundaries between media possessing different EM properties. The reflected signals are recorded to produce a scan or trace of radar data. Typically, scans obtained as the antenna(s) are moved over the ground surface are placed side by side to produce a radar profile.  
5.1.1 The vertical scale of the radar profile is in units of two-way travel time, the time it takes for an EM wave to travel down to a reflector and back to the surface. The travel time may be converted to depth by relating it to on-site measurements or assumptions about the velocity of the radar waves in the subsurface materials.  
5.1.2 Vertical variations in propagation velocity due to changing EM properties of the subsurface can make it difficult to apply a linear time scale to the radar profile (Ulriksen (31)).  
5.2 Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:  
5.2.1 Two-Way Travel Time and Velocity—A GPR trace is the record of the amplitude of EM energy that has been reflected from interfaces between materials possessing different EM properties and recorded as a function of two-way travel time. To convert two-way times to depths, it is necessary to estimate or determine the propagation velocity of the EM pulses or waves. The relative permittivity of the material (εr) through which the EM pulse or wave propagates mostly determines the propagation velocity of the EM wave. The propagation velocity through the material is approximated using the following relationship (see full formula in Balanis (32)):
    where:
  c  ...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials using the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Method. GPR is most often employed as a technique that uses high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves (from 10 to 7000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. GPR detects changes in EM properties (dielectric permittivity, conductivity, and magnetic permeability), that in a geologic setting, are a function of soil and rock material, water content, and bulk density. Data are normally acquired using antennas placed on the ground surface or in boreholes. The transmitting antenna radiates EM waves that propagate in the subsurface and reflect from boundaries at which there are EM property contrasts. The receiving GPR antenna records the reflected waves over a selectable time range. The depths to the reflecting interfaces are calculated from the arrival times in the GPR data if the EM propagation velocity in the subsurface can be estimated or measured.  
1.1.2 GPR measurements as described in this guide are used in geologic, engineering, hydrologic, and environmental applications. The GPR method is used to map geologic conditions that include depth to bedrock, depth to the water table (Wright et al (1)2), depth and thickness of soil strata on land and under fresh water bodies (Beres and Haeni (2)), and the location of subsurface cavities and fractures in bedrock (Ulriksen (3) and Imse and Levine (4)). Other applications include the location of objects such as pipes, drums, tanks, cables, and boulders, mapping landfill and trench boundaries (Benson et al (5)), mapping contaminants (Cosgrave et al (6); Brewster and Annan (7); Daniels et al (8)), conducting archaeological (Vaughan (9)) and forensic investigations (Davenport et al (10)), inspection of brick, masonry, and concrete structures, roads and railroad trackbed studies (Ulrik...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This guide is intended to encourage consistency and thoroughness in the reporting of geostatistical site investigations by describing the basic information required in a complete report.  
5.2 Referring to the table of contents suggested in Table 1, this guide may be used as a template by those preparing reports or as a checklist for review and auditing purposes by qualified nonparticipants in the study.
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1.1 This guide covers the contents required for a complete report of a geostatistical site investigation. A complete report is understood here to be one that contains all the information necessary to the understanding and evaluation of the geostatistical site investigation by other geostatisticians.  
1.2 This guide does not discuss the reporting of supplementary information that may assist evaluation of the report.  
1.3 While geostatistical methods are used in many fields, this guide is primarily intended for the reporting of environmental and geotechnical applications.  
1.4 The basic geostatistical methods referred to in this guide are fully described in texts by David (1),2 Journel and Huijbregts (2), Clark (3), and Isaaks and Srivastava (4). Olea (5) gives a thorough compilation of geostatistical terminology as well as (6)  a practical description of the subject for engineers and earth scientists. Chiles (7) and Goovaerts (8) provide material on how to deal with spatial uncertainty and how to use geostatistics for the evaluation of natural resources.  
1.5 This guide does not discuss the reporting of multivariate, space-time, and other less-frequently used geostatistical methods; however this is not intended to reflect any judgment as to the validity of these methods.  
1.6 Geostatistics is but one approach that can be used to understand and describe site conditions. Investigations should incorporate whatever supplementary knowledge of the site that may be available from other sources. As with classical statistical approaches, geostatistics is not intended to establish cause-and-effect relationships.  
1.7 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of caliper logs. This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.  
5.2 The benefits of its use include the following: improving selection of caliper logging methods and equipment, caliper log quality and reliability, and usefulness of the caliper log data for subsequent display and interpretation.  
5.3 This guide applies to commonly used caliper logging methods for geotechnical applications.  
5.4 It is essential that personnel (see the Personnel section of Guide D5753) consult up-to-date textbooks and reports on the caliper technique, application, and interpretation methods.
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1.1 This guide covers the general procedures necessary to conduct caliper logging of boreholes, wells, access tubes, caissons, or shafts (hereafter referred to as boreholes) as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater, and environmental (hereafter referred to as geotechnical) investigations. Caliper logging for mineral or petroleum exploration and development are excluded.  
1.1.1 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.2 This guide defines a caliper log as a record of borehole diameter with depth.  
1.2.1 Caliper logs are essential in the interpretation of geophysical logs since geophysical results can be significantly affected by borehole diameter.  
1.2.2 Caliper logs provide useful information for borehole completion and testing and are commonly used to assess borehole diameter, shape, roughness, and stability; calculate borehole volume; provide information on borehole construction; and delineate lithologic contacts, fractures, and solution cavities and other openings.  
1.2.2.1 Borehole-diameter information is essential for calculation of volumetric rate from flowmeter logs.
1.2.2.2 Caliper logs are used to locate the optimum placement of inflatable packers for borehole testing. Inflatable packers can only form an effective seal within a specified range of borehole diameters, and can be damaged if they are set in rough or irregular parts of the borehole.
1.2.2.3 Caliper logs are used to estimate the volume of borehole completion material (cement, gravel, etc.) needed to fill the annular space between borehole and casing(s) or well screen.
1.2.2.4 Caliper logs may be applied to correlate lithology between boreholes based upon enlargements related to lithology. The measured borehole diameter may be significantly different than the drilled diameter because of plastic formations expanded into the borehole and friable formations enlarging the borehole. A series of caliper logs may also show increases or decreases in borehole diameter with time.  
1.3 This guide is restricted to mechanically based devices with spring-loaded arms, which are the most common calipers used in caliper logging with geotechnical applications.  
1.4 This guide provides an overview of caliper logging, including general procedures, specific documentation, calibration and standardization, and log quality and interpretation.  
1.5 This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.  
1.6 This guide should not be used as a sole criterion for caliper logging and does not replace professional judgment. Caliper logging procedures should b...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts:  
5.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods used for the determination of the depth, thickness and the seismic velocity of subsurface soil and rock or engineered materials, using the seismic refraction method.  
5.1.2 Measurement of subsurface conditions by the seismic refraction method requires a seismic energy source, trigger cable (or radio link), geophones, geophone cable, and a seismograph (see Fig. 1).  
FIG. 1 Field Layout of a Twelve-Channel Seismograph Showing the Path of Direct and Refracted Seismic Waves in a Two-Layer Soil/Rock System (αc  = Critical Angle)      
5.1.3 The geophone(s) and the seismic source must be placed in firm contact with the soil or rock. The geophones are usually located in a line, sometimes referred to as a geophone spread. The seismic source may be a sledge hammer, a mechanical device that strikes the ground, or some other type of impulse source. Explosives are used for deeper refractors or special conditions that require greater energy. Geophones convert the ground vibrations into an electrical signal. This electrical signal is recorded and processed by the seismograph. The travel time of the seismic wave (from the source to the geophone) is determined from the seismic wave form. Fig. 2 shows a seismograph record using a single geophone. Fig. 3 shows a seismograph record using twelve geophones.  
FIG. 2 A Typical Seismic Waveform from a Single Geophone    
Note 1: Arrow marks arrival of first compressional wave.    
FIG. 3 Twelve-Channel Analog Seismograph Record Showing Good First Breaks Produced by an Explosive Sound Source (2)      
5.1.4 The seismic energy source generates elastic waves that travel through the soil or rock from the source. When the seismic wave reaches the interface between two materials of different seismic velocities, the waves are refracted according to Snell's Law (3, 4). When the angle of incidence equals the critical angle at the i...
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1.1 Purpose and Application—This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface conditions using the seismic refraction method. Seismic refraction measurements as described in this guide are applicable in mapping subsurface conditions for various uses including geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, environmental (1), mineral exploration, petroleum exploration, and archaeological investigations. The seismic refraction method is used to map geologic conditions including depth of bedrock, or the water table, stratigraphy, lithology, structure, and fractures or all of these. The calculated seismic wave velocity is related to mechanical material properties. Therefore, characterization of the material (type of rock, degree of weathering, and rippability) is made on the basis of seismic velocity and other geologic information.  
1.1.1 The geotechnical industry uses English or SI units.  
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the seismic refraction method using compressional (P) waves. It does not address the details of the seismic refraction theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the seismic refraction method be familiar with the relevant material in this guide and the references cited in the text and with appropriate ASTM standards cited in 2.1.  
1.2.2 This guide is limited to the commonly used approach to seismic refraction measurements made on land. The seismic refraction method can be adapted for a number of special uses, on land, within a borehole and on water. However, a discussion of these other adaptations of seismic refraction measurements is not included in this guide.  
1.2.3 There are certain cases in which shear waves need to be measured to satisfy project requirements. The meas...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The ESC Process—This practice describes a process for characterizing hazardous waste contaminated sites8, that provides cost-effective, timely, high-quality information derived primarily from judgement-based sampling and measurements by an integrated, multidisciplinary project team during a limited number of field mobilizations. (See Appendix X1 for additional background on the ESC process, its distinction from traditional site characterization, and its relationship to other approaches to site characterization and Appendix X5 and X6 for illustrative examples of the ESC process.)  
4.2 Determining Appropriateness of ESC—The ESC process should be initiated when an ESC client, regulatory authority, and stakeholders determine that contaminants at a site present a potential threat to human health or the environment and the ESC process will identify vadose zone, groundwater, and other contaminant migration pathways in a timely and cost-effective manner, especially when decisions concerning remedial or other action must be made as rapidly as possible. Situations where the process may be applicable are as follows:  
4.2.1 ESA—Sites where environmental site assessments (ESAs) conducted by using Practice E1527, Practice E1528, and Guide E1903 identify levels of contamination requiring further, more intensive characterization of the geologic and hydrologic system of contaminant migration pathways. Section X1.5.3 discusses the relationship between ESAs and the ESC process.  
4.2.2 Petroleum Release Sites—Large petroleum release sites, such as refineries. The user should review both this practice and Guide E1912 to evaluate whether the ESC or ASC process is more appropriate for such sites.  
4.2.3 Subsurface Radioactivity—Sites or facilities with subsurface contamination by radioactivity.  
4.2.4 Other Subsurface Contamination—Other sites or facilities where contaminant migration in the vadose zone and groundwater is a matter of concern and heterogeneity of the vadose z...
SCOPE
1.1 Applicability of the ESC Process—This practice covers a process for expedited site characterization (ESC) of hazardous waste contaminated sites2 to identify vadose zone, groundwater and other relevant contaminant migration pathways and determine the distribution, concentration, and fate of contaminants for the purpose of providing an ESC client, regulatory authority, and stakeholders with the necessary information to choose a course of action.3 Generally, the process is applicable to larger-scale projects or contaminated sites where the ESC process can be reasonably expected to reduce the time and cost of site characterization compared to alternative approaches. The ESC process has been applied successfully at a variety of sites (see Table X1.1). It typically achieves significant cost and schedule savings compared to traditional site characterization (see X1.2 and X1.3),4 although it should be recognized that in-depth site characterization of hazardous waste contaminated sites may require a more elaborate process than ESC.  
1.2 Features of the ESC Process—The ESC process operates within the framework of existing regulatory programs. It focuses on collecting only the information required to meet characterization objectives and on ensuring that characterization ceases as soon as the objectives are met. Central to the ESC process is the use of judgement-based sampling and measurement to characterize vadose zone and groundwater contamination in a limited number of field mobilizations by an integrated multidisciplinary team, led by a technical leader and operating within the framework of a dynamic work plan that gives him or her the flexibility of responsibility to select the type and location of measurements needed to optimize data collection activities. Table 1 identifies other essential features of the ESC process, and Fig. 1 presents a flow diagram for the entire ESC process.  
FIG. 1 Overview of the Expedited Site...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Whether for the sake of simplicity or because of a lack of information, geotechnical engineers regularly assume that soil and rock properties are the same throughout a particular location, even though they realize that the use of averaged parameter values can result in soil parameters that are significantly different from the actual parameters.  
5.2 Considering the spatial distribution of soil and rock mass properties, the use of geostatictics in site investigations should be considered as it will provide a more accurate estimation of the soil and rock properties based on the available input information.  
5.3 This guide is intended to encourage consistency in the analysis, interpretation, and modeling of spatial variation in geostatistical site investigations.  
5.4 This guide should be used in conjunction with Guides D5549, D5923, and D5924.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers recommendations for analyzing, interpreting, and modeling spatial variation of regionalized variables in geotechnical and environmental site investigations.  
1.2 The measures of spatial variation discussed in this guide include variograms and correlograms; these are fully described in Refs. (1-4).2  
1.3 This guide is intended to assist those who are already familiar with the geostatistical tools discussed herein and does not provide introductory information on the analysis, interpretation, and modeling of spatial variation.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This guide is intended to encourage consistency and thoroughness in the application of kriging methods to environmental, geotechnical, and hydrogeological site investigations.  
4.2 This guide may be used to assist those performing a kriging study or as an explanation of procedures for qualified nonparticipants that may be reviewing or auditing the study.  
4.3 This guide encourages the use of site-specific information for the selection of an appropriate kriging method; however, the quality of data, the sampling density, and site coverage cannot be improved or compensated by any choice of kriging method.  
4.4 This guide describes conditions for which kriging or particular kriging methods are recommended. However, these methods are not necessarily inappropriate if the stated conditions are not encountered.  
4.5 This guide should be used in conjunction with Guides D5549, D5922, and D5924.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers recommendations for selecting appropriate kriging methods based on study objectives, exploratory data analysis, and analysis of spatial variation.  
1.2 This guide considers commonly used forms of kriging, including ordinary kriging, simple kriging, lognormal kriging, universal kriging, and indicator kriging. Multivariate, space-time, and other less-frequently used kriging methods are not discussed; however, this is not intended to reflect any judgement as to the validity of these methods.  
1.3 This guide describes conditions for which kriging methods are not appropriate and for which geostatistical simulations approaches should be used.  
1.4 This guide does not discuss non-geostatistical alternatives to kriging, such as splines or inverse-distance techniques.  
1.5 This guide does not discuss the basic principles of kriging. Introductions to geostatistics and kriging may be found in numerous texts including Refs (1-3).2 A review of kriging methods is given in Ref. (4).  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of gamma logs. This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.  
5.2 The benefits of its use include improving selection of gamma logging methods and equipment, gamma log quality and reliability, and usefulness of the gamma log data for subsequent display and interpretation.  
5.3 This guide applies to commonly used gamma logging methods for geotechnical applications.  
5.4 It is essential that personnel (see the Personnel section of Guide D5753) consult up-to-date textbooks and reports on the gamma technique, application, and interpretation methods.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers the general procedures necessary to conduct gamma, natural gamma, total count gamma, or gamma ray (hereafter referred to as gamma) logging of boreholes, wells, access tubes, caissons, or shafts (hereafter referred to as boreholes) as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater, and environmental (hereafter referred to as geotechnical) investigations. Spectral gamma and logging where gamma measurements are made in conjunction with a nuclear source are excluded (for example, neutron activation and gamma-gamma density logs). Gamma logging for minerals or petroleum applications are excluded.  
1.2 This guide defines a gamma log as a record of gamma activity of the formation adjacent to a borehole with depth (See Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).
FIG. 1 Example of a Gamma Log From Near the South Rim of the Grand Canyon in the USA (in cps)  
Note 1: This figure demonstrates how the log can be used to identify specific formations, illustrating scale wrap-around for a local gamma peak, and showing how the contact between two formations is picked to coincide with the half-way point of the transition between the gamma activities of the two formations.
FIG. 2 Example of a Gamma Log for the Hydrologic Observation Well KGS #1 Braun located near Hays, Kansas in the USA (in API units whereby SGR reflects the derived total gamma ray log (the sum of all the radiation contributions), and CGR reflects the computed gamma ray log (the sum of the potassium and thorium responses, leaving out the contribution from uranium).  
1.2.1 Gamma logs are commonly used to delineate lithology, correlate measurements made on different logging runs, and define stratigraphic correlation between boreholes (See Fig. 3).
FIG. 3 Example of Gamma Logs From Two Boreholes
Note 1: From a study site showing how the gamma logs can be used to identify where beds intersect each of the individual boreholes, demonstrating lateral continuity of the subsurface geology.  
1.3 This guide is restricted to gamma logging with nuclear counters consisting of scintillation detectors (crystals coupled with photomultiplier tubes), which are the most common gamma measurement devices used in geotechnical applications.  
1.4 This guide provides an overview of gamma logging including general procedures, specific documentation, calibration and standardization, and log quality and interpretation.  
1.5 This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.  
1.6 Gamma logs should be collected by an operator that is trained in geophysical logging procedures. Gamma logs should be interpreted by a professional experienced in log analysis.  
1.7 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units [given in brackets] are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.7.1 The gamma log is typically recorded in units of counts per second (cps) or American Petroleum Institute (API) units. The gamma ray API unit is defined as 1/20...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This guide, when used in conjunction with Guide D5730, provides direction to the selection of the various ASTM standards that are available for the investigation of soil, rock, the vadose zone, groundwater, and other media where the investigations have an environmental purpose and are conducted in cold regions of the world. It is intended to improve consistency of practice and to encourage rational planning of a site characterization program by providing information to assist in the design of an environmental reconnaissance or investigation plans. This guide is intended to provide information that will help reduce as much as possible the effect of site investigation operations on areas of frozen ground or permafrost and increase the safety of environmental operations in cold regions.  
4.2 This guide presents information and references for site characterization for environmental purposes in cold regions of the world.
SCOPE
1.1 Understanding environmental processes that occur in soil and rock systems in cold regions of the world depends on adequate characterization of not only the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil and rock but also the climatic factors under which they exist. Processes of interest may include, but are not limited to, surface and subsurface hydrology, contaminant mobilization, distribution, fate and transport, chemical and biological degradation of wastes, geomorphological, and ecological processes in general.  
1.2 This guide should be used in conjunction with Guide D5730.  
1.3 This guide describes special problems to be considered when planning field investigations in cold regions. The primary focus of this guide is presenting the special problems and concerns of site characterization in the cold regions of the world.  
1.4 Laboratory testing of soil, rock, and groundwater samples is specified by other ASTM standards that are not specifically discussed in this guide. Laboratory methods for measurement of physical properties relevant to environmental investigations are included in Guide D5730.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.  
1.6 This guide emphasizes the care that must be taken by all field personnel during operations in tundra and permafrost areas of the world.  
1.7 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts:  
5.1.1 This guide summarizes the basic equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods used for detecting, delineating, or mapping shallow subsurface features and relative changes in layer geometry or stratigraphy using the seismic-reflection method. Common applications of the method include mapping the top of bedrock, delineating bed or layer geometries, identifying changes in subsurface material properties, detecting voids or fracture zones, mapping faults, defining the top of the water table, mapping confining layers, and estimating of elastic-wave velocity in subsurface materials. Personnel requirements are as discussed in Practice D3740.  
5.1.2 Subsurface measurements using the seismic-reflection method require a seismic source, multiple seismic sensors, multi-channel seismograph, and appropriate connections (radio or hardwire) between each (Fig. 1, also showing optional roll-along switch).  
Seismic energy propagation time between seismic sensors depends on wave type, travel path, and seismic velocity of the material. The travel path of reflected body waves (compressional (P) and shear (S) waves) is controlled by subsurface material velocity and geometry of interfaces defined by acoustic impedance (product of velocity and density) changes. A difference in acoustic impedance between two layers results in an impedance contrast across the boundary separating the layers and determines the reflectivity (reflection coefficient) of the boundary; for example, how much energy is reflected versus how much is transmitted (Eq 3). At normal incidence:  
    where:
  R  =  reflectivity = reflection coefficient,   V1V2  =  velocity of layers 1 and 2,   ρ1ρ2  =  density of layers 1 and 2,   Vρ  =  acoustic impedance, and   A  =  impedance contrast.  
Snell’s law (Eq 4) describes the relationship between incident, refracted, and reflected seismic waves:
   where:
  i  =  incident angle,   r  =  reflected angle, and   t  =  re...
SCOPE
1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the technique, equipment, field procedures, data processing, and interpretation methods for the assessment of shallow subsurface conditions using the seismic-reflection method.  
1.1.2 Seismic reflection measurements as described in this guide are applicable in mapping shallow subsurface conditions for various uses including geologic (1), geotechnical, hydrogeologic (2), and environmental (3).2 The seismic-reflection method is used to map, detect, and delineate geologic conditions including the bedrock surface, confining layers (aquitards), faults, lithologic stratigraphy, voids, water table, fracture systems, and layer geometry (folds). The primary application of the seismic-reflection method is the mapping of lateral continuity of lithologic units and, in general, detection of change in acoustic properties in the subsurface.  
1.1.3 This guide will focus on the seismic-reflection method as it is applied to the near surface. Near-surface seismic reflection applications are based on the same principles as those used for deeper seismic reflection surveying, but accepted practices can differ in several respects. Near-surface seismic-reflection data are generally high-resolution (dominant frequency above 80 Hz) and image depths from around 6 m to as much as several hundred meters. Investigations shallower than 6 m have occasionally been undertaken, but these should be considered experimental.  
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the shallow seismic-reflection method, but it does not address the details of seismic theory, field procedures, data processing, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the seismic-reflection method be familiar with the relevant material in this guide, the references cited in the text...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This guide is intended to encourage consistency and thoroughness in the application of geostatistical simulation to environmental, geotechnical, and hydrogeological site investigations.  
4.2 This guide may be used to assist those performing a simulation study or as an explanation of procedures for qualified nonparticipants who may be reviewing or auditing the study.  
4.3 This guide should be used in conjunction with Guides D5549, D5922, and D5923.  
4.4 This guide describes conditions for which simulation or particular simulation approaches are recommended. However, these approaches are not necessarily inappropriate if the stated conditions are not encountered.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers the conditions that determine the selection of a suitable simulation approach for a site investigation problem. Alternative simulation approaches considered here are conditional and nonconditional, indicator and Gaussian, single and multiple realization, point, and block.  
1.2 This guide describes the conditions for which the use of simulation is an appropriate alternative to the use of estimation in geostatistical site investigations.  
1.3 This guide does not discuss the basic principles of geostatistics. Introductions to geostatistics may be found in numerous texts including Refs (1-3).2  
1.4 This guide is concerned with general simulation approaches only and does not discuss particular simulation algorithms currently in use. These are described in Refs (4-6).  
1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice should be used as the initial step for evaluating a site for its potential to support an on-site septic system and to determine the best location for subsurface observations as covered in Practice D5921.  
5.2 This practice should be used by individuals involved with the evaluation of properties for the use of on-site septic systems. Such individuals may be required to be licensed, certified, or meet minimum educational requirements by the local or state regulatory authority. Generally, such individuals should be familiar with the appropriate regulatory requirements governing the design and placement of on-site septic systems for the area of the site being investigated, and at least some experience or training in geomorphology, soils, geology, and hydrology.  
5.3 This practice is one step in the design of an on-site septic system that also includes subsurface characterization, see Practice D5921, staking and protection of the soil absorption or constructed filter bed area, see Practice D5925, selection of system type, and design of the system size and configuration. Typically, the same individual will perform the surface and subsurface characterization of a site. Local regulation and practice will determine whether the same individual is responsible for all steps in the process of locating and designing an on-site septic system. Effective surface and subsurface characterization of a site for on-site septic systems, however, requires some knowledge of the following for the county or state in which the site is located: (1) on-site septic system types typically used for different soil conditions, and (2) typical soil absorption/filter bed areas required for different wastewater flow rates and areal soil wastewater loading rates.
SCOPE
1.1 Site characterization of surface conditions at a site for evaluating suitability for on-site septic systems requires both simple and complex techniques that may be accomplished by many different procedures and may be variously interpreted. These studies are frequently site specific and are influenced by geological and geographical settings, by the purpose of the site characterization, by design requirements for the project proposed, and by the background, training, and experience of the staff involved.  
1.2 This standard is a guide for using the surface site characterization for on-site septic systems method for projects that require on-site sewage disposal. It is intended to improve consistency of practice and to encourage the use of this method as part of a site characterization program. Since the subsurface conditions at a particular site are usually the result of a combination of natural, geologic, topographic, and climatic factors, and of historical modifications both natural and manmade, an adequate and internally consistent use of a method as part of the exploration program will allow evaluation of the results of these influences.  
1.3 This practice can be used at any site where on-site treatment of residential and nonhazardous commercial wastewaters using septic tanks and natural soils or constructed filter beds is required or an option under consideration. This practice may also be useful when constructed wetlands are used as an alternative wastewater treatment method.  
1.4 This practice should be used in conjunction with Practices D5921 and D5925.  
1.5 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units given in brackets are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the standard. Reporting of results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.6 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education o...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts:  
5.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures and interpretation methods used for the characterization of subsurface materials and geological structure as based on their properties to conduct, enhance or obstruct the flow of electrical currents as induced in the ground by an alternating electromagnetic field.  
5.1.2 The frequency domain method requires a transmitter or energy source, a transmitter coil, receiver electronics, a receiver coil, and interconnect cables (Fig. 5).  
Perhaps the most important constraint is that the depth of penetration (skin depth, see section 6.5.3.1) of the electromagnetic wave generated by the transmitter be much greater than the intercoil spacing of the instrument. The depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the ground conductivity and instrument frequency. For example, an instrument with an intercoil spacing of 10 m and a frequency of 6400 Hz, using the vertical dipole, meets the low induction number assumption for earth conductivities less than 200 mS/m.  
5.1.5 Multi-frequency domain instruments usually measure the two components of the secondary magnetic field: a component in-phase with the primary field and a component 90° out-of-phase (quadrature component) with the primary field (Kearey and Brook 1991). Generally, instruments do not display either the in-phase or out-of-phase (quadrature) components but do show either the apparent conductivity or the ratio of the secondary to primary magnetic fields.  
5.1.6 When ground conditions are such that the low induction number approximation is valid, the in-phase component is much less than the quadrature phase component. If there is a relatively large in-phase component, the low induction number approximation is not valid and there is likely a very conductive buried body or layer, that is, ore body or man-made metal object.  
5.1.7 The transmitter and receiver coils are almost always aligned in a plane either parallel to the earth's sur...
SCOPE
1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface conditions using the frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) method.  
1.1.2 FDEM measurements as described in this standard guide are applicable to mapping subsurface conditions for geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, environmental, agricultural, archaeological and forensic site characterizations as well as mineral exploration.  
1.1.3 The FDEM method is sometimes used to map such diverse geologic conditions as depth to bedrock, fractures and fault zones, voids and sinkholes, soil and rock properties, and saline intrusion as well as man-induced environmental conditions including buried drums, underground storage tanks (USTs), landfill boundaries and conductive groundwater contamination.  
1.1.4 The FDEM method utilizes the secondary magnetic field induced in the earth by a time-varying primary magnetic field to explore the subsurface. It measures the amplitude and phase of the induced field at various frequencies. FDEM instruments typically measure two components of the secondary magnetic field: a component in-phase with the primary field and a component 90° out-of-phase (quadrature component) with the primary field (Kearey and Brook 1991). Generally, the in-phase response is more sensitive to metallic items (either above or below the ground surface) while the quadrature response is more sensitive to geologic variations in the subsurface. However, both components are, to some degree, affected by both metallic and geologic features. FDEM measurements therefore are dependent on the electrical properties of the subsurface soil and rock or buried man-made objects as well as the orientation of any subsurface geological features or man-made objects. In many cases, the FDEM measurements can be used to identify the subsurface structure or object. This method is used only wh...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 An adequate site characterization will provide pertinent information for decision making on one or more of the following subjects:  
4.1.1 Location of the structure, both vertically and horizontally, within the area of the proposed construction and selection of construction methods and equipment.  
4.1.2 Location and preliminary evaluation of suitable borrow and other local sources of construction aggregates.  
4.1.3 Need for special excavating and dewatering techniques with the corresponding need for information, even if only approximate, on the distribution of soil water content or pore pressure, or both, and on the piezometric heads and apparent permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of the various subsurface strata.  
4.1.4 Evaluation of slope stability in natural slopes, cuts, and embankments.  
4.1.5 Conceptual selection of embankment types and hydraulic barrier requirements.  
4.1.6 Conceptual selection of alternate foundation types and elevations of the corresponding suitable bearing strata.  
4.1.7 Development of additional detailed site characterizations for specific structures or facilities.  
4.2 The site characterization may require the collection of sufficiently large soil and rock samples of such quality as to allow adequate testing to determine the soil or rock classification or mineralogic type, or both, and the engineering properties pertinent to the proposed design.  
4.3 This guide is not meant to be an inflexible description of requirements; methods defined by other ASTM standards or non-ASTM techniques may be appropriate in some circumstances. The intent is to provide a list to assist in preparation of a site characterization plan.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide refers to ASTM methods to perform site characterization for engineering, design, and construction purposes. The objective of the site characterization should be to identify and locate, both horizontally and vertically, significant soil and rock types and groundwater conditions present within a given site area and to establish the characteristics of the subsurface materials by sampling or in situ testing, or both.  
1.2 Laboratory testing of soil, rock, and groundwater samples is specified by other ASTM standards not listed herein. Subsurface exploration for environmental purposes is also outside the scope of this guide.  
1.3 Prior to commencement of the site characterization the site should be checked for potentially hazardous or otherwise contaminated materials or cultural/archeological conditions. If evidence of unknown potentially hazardous or otherwise contaminated materials or conditions are encountered in the course of the site characterization, work shall be interrupted until the circumstances have been evaluated and revised instructions issued.  
1.3.1 In addition the location and nature of underground and overhead utilities should be identified to ensure that there is no impact to the proposed site characterization. Impacts may include but are not limited to interference with geophysical methods, damaging utilities, creating an unsafe work condition, and limiting accessibility for exploratory equipment.  
1.4 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded as the standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard. Inch-pound units are provided in brackets for convenience.  
1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a give...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods used for the determination of subsurface conditions due to density variations using the gravity method. Gravity measurements can be used to map major geologic features over hundreds of square miles and to detect shallow smaller features in soil or rock. In some areas, the gravity method can detect subsurface cavities.  
5.1.1 Another benefit of the gravity method is that measurements can be made in many culturally developed areas, where other geophysical methods may not work. For example, gravity measurements can be made inside buildings; in urban areas; and in areas of cultural, electrical, and electromagnetic noise.  
5.1.2 Measurement of subsurface conditions by the gravity method requires a gravimeter (Fig. 1) and a means of determining location and very accurate relative elevations of gravity stations.
5.1.2.1 The unit of measurement used in the gravity method is the Gal (in honor of Galileo), based on the gravitational force at the Earth's surface. The average gravity at the Earth's surface is approximately 980 Gal. The unit commonly used in regional gravity surveys is the mGal (10−3 Gal). Typical gravity surveys for environmental and engineering applications require measurements with an accuracy of a few μGals (10−6 Gals), they are often referred to as microgravity surveys.
5.1.2.2 A detailed gravity survey typically uses closely spaced measurement stations (a few meters to approximately 100 meters) and is carried out with a gravimeter capable of reading to a few μGals. Detailed surveys are used to assess local geologic or structural conditions.
5.1.2.3 A gravity survey consists of making gravity measurements at stations along a profile line or grid. Measurements are taken periodically at a base station (a stable noise-free reference location) to correct for instrument drift.  
5.1.3 Gravity data contain anomalies that are made up of deep regional and shall...
SCOPE
1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface conditions using the gravity method. However, this standard does not address the use of marine, airborne, or satellite gravity measurements.  
1.1.2 The gravity method described in this guide is applicable to site characterization of a wide range of subsurface conditions.  
1.1.3 Gravity measurements indicate variations in the earth's gravitational field caused by lateral differences in the density of the subsurface soil or rock or the presence of natural voids or man-made structures. By measuring spatial changes in the gravitational field, variations in subsurface conditions can be determined.  
1.1.4 Detailed gravity surveys (commonly called microgravity surveys) are used for near-surface geologic site characterizations and geotechnical, environmental, and archaeological studies. Geologic and geotechnical applications include location of buried channels, bedrock structural features, voids, and caves, and low-density zones in foundations. Environmental applications include site characterization, groundwater studies, landfill characterization, and location of underground storage tanks (1)2.  
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the gravity method. It does not address the details of the gravity theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the gravity method be familiar with the references cited and with the Guides D420, D5753, D6235, and D6429, and Practices D5088, and D5608.  
1.2.2 This guide is limited to gravity measurements made on land. The gravity method can be adapted for a number of special uses: on land, in a borehole, on water, and from aircraft and space. A discussion of these other...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts—The resistivity technique is used to measure the resistivity of subsurface materials. Although the resistivity of materials can be a good indicator of the type of subsurface material present, it is not a unique indicator. While the resistivity method is used to measure the resistivity of earth materials, it is the interpreter who, based on knowledge of local geologic conditions and other data, must interpret resistivity data and arrive at a reasonable geologic and hydrologic interpretation.  
5.2 Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:  
5.2.1 Table 1 shows some general trends for resistivity values. Fig. 2 shows ranges in resistivity values for subsurface materials.    
5.6.2 Schlumberger Array—The Schlumberger array consists of unequally spaced in-line electrodes (Fig. 3), where AB > 5 MN. The formula for calculating apparent resistivity from a Schlumberger measurement is:
    where:
  AB  =  distance between current electrodes, and    MN  =  distance between potential electrodes.    
5.6.3 Dipole-Dipole Array—The dipole-dipole array consists of a pair of closely spaced current electrodes and a pair of closely spaced potential electrodes (Fig. 3). The formula for calculating apparent resistivity from a dipole-dipole measurement is:
    where:
  na  =  distance between innermost electrodes measured as a number (n) of a-spacings, and   a  =  distance between the current electrodes and also the potential electrodes.    
5.6.4 Comparison of the Arrays:  
5.6.4.1 Schlumberger Arrays:  
(1) Schlumberger arrays are less susceptible to contact problems and the influence of nearby geologic conditions that may affect readings. The method provides a means to recognize the effects of lateral variations and to partially correct for them.
(2) Schlumberger arrays are slightly faster in field operations since only the current electrodes must be moved between readings.
5.6.4.2 Wenner Arrays:  
(1) The Wenner array provid...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of the electrical properties of subsurface materials and their pore fluids, using the direct current (DC) resistivity method. Measurements of the electrical properties of subsurface materials are made from the land surface and yield an apparent resistivity. These data can then be interpreted to yield an estimate of the depth, thickness, voids, and resistivity of subsurface layer(s).  
1.1.2 Resistivity measurements as described in this guide are applied in geological, geotechnical, environmental, and hydrologic investigations. The resistivity method is used to map geologic features such as lithology, structure, fractures, and stratigraphy; hydrologic features such as depth to water table, depth to aquitard, and groundwater salinity; and to delineate groundwater contaminants. General references are, Keller and Frischknecht (1),2 Zohdy et al  (2), Koefoed (3), EPA(4), Ward (5), Griffiths and King (6), and Telford et al (7).  
1.1.3 This guide does not address the use tomographic interpretation methods, commonly referred to as electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) or electrical resistivity imaging (ERI). While many of the principles apply the data acquisition and interpretation differ from those set forth in this guide.  
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the Direct Current Resistivity Method. It does not address in detail the theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the resistivity method be familiar with the references cited in the text and with the Guide D420, Practice D5088, Practice D5608, Guide D5730, Test Method G57, D6429, and D6235.  
1.2.2 This guide is limited to the commonly used approach fo...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of borehole geophysical logs.  
5.2 Borehole geophysical techniques yield direct and indirect measurements with depth of the (1) physical, lithologic, mechanical, stresses, hydrologic, discontinuities, and chemical properties of the rock matrix and/or fluid around the borehole, (2) fluid contained in the borehole, and (3) construction of the borehole.  
5.3 The benefits of its use include improving the following:  
5.3.1 Selection of logging methods and equipment,  
5.3.2 Log quality and reliability, and  
5.3.3 Usefulness of the log data for subsequent display and interpretation.
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide covers the documentation and general procedures necessary to plan and conduct a geophysical borehole logging program as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater, and environmental (hereafter referred to as geotechnical) site characterizations.  
1.1.2 This guide applies to commonly used logging methods (see Tables 1 and 2) for geotechnical site characterizations.  
1.1.3 This guide provides an overview of the following:
(1) the uses of single borehole geophysical methods,
(2) general logging procedures,
(3) documentation,
(4) calibration, and
(5) factors that can affect the quality of borehole geophysical logs and their subsequent interpretation. Log interpretation is very important, but specific methods are too diverse to be described in this guide.  
1.1.4 Logging procedures must be adapted to meet the needs of a wide range of applications and stated in general terms so that flexibility or innovation are not suppressed.  
1.1.5 To obtain detailed information on operating methods, publications (for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)2 should be consulted. A limited amount of tutorial information is provided, but other publications listed herein, including a glossar y of terms and general texts on the subject, should be consulted for more complete background information.  
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide is not meant to describe the specific or standard procedures for running each type of geophysical log, and is limited to measurements in a single borehole.  
1.2.2 Surface or shallow-depth nuclear gages for measuring water content or soil density (that is, those typically thought of as construction quality assurance devices), measurements while drilling (MWD), cone penetrometer tests, and logging for petroleum or minerals are excluded.  
1.2.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.3 Precautions:  
1.3.1 If the method is used at sites with hazardous materials, operations, or equipment, it is the responsibility of the user of this guide to establish appropriate safety and health practices, and to determine the applicability of regulations prior to use.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized princi...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of neutron logs.  
5.2 The benefits of its use include improving selection of neutron logging methods and equipment; neutron log quality and reliability; usefulness of the neutron log data for subsequent display and interpretation.  
5.3 This guide applies to commonly used neutron logging methods for geotechnical applications.
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1.1 This guide is focused on the general procedures necessary to conduct neutron or neutron porosity (hereafter referred to as neutron) logging of boreholes, wells, access tubes, caissons, or shafts (hereafter referred to as boreholes) as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater and environmental (hereafter referred to as geotechnical) explorations. Neutron soil moisture measurements made using neutron moisture gauges, are excluded. Neutron logging for minerals or petroleum applications is excluded, along with neutron activation logs where gamma spectral detectors are used to characterize the induced gamma activity of minerals exposed to neutron radiation.  
1.2 This guide defines a neutron log as a record of the rate at which thermal and epithermal neutrons are scattered back to one or more detectors located on a probe adjacent to a neutron source.  
1.2.1 Induction logs are treated quantitatively and should be interpreted with other logs and data whenever possible.  
1.2.2 Neutron logs are commonly used to: (1) delineate lithology, and (2) indicate the water-filled porosity of formations (see Fig. 1).   Nc  =  corrected neutron log,   N0  =  original neutron log,   Csh  =  computed shale fraction based upon the gamma log position between the endpoints of 10 and 120 cps, and   Φsh  =  estimate of shale non-effective porosity of about 40 % picked from intervals on the log where Φsh = 1.0.    
1.3 This guide is restricted to neutron logging with nuclear counters consisting of scintillation detectors (crystals coupled with photomultiplier tubes), or to He3-tube detectors with or without Cd foil covers or coatings to exclude thermalized neutrons.  
1.4 This guide provides an overview of neutron logging including: (1) general procedures; (2) specific documentation; (3 ) calibration and standardization, and (4) log quality and interpretation.  
1.5 To obtain additional information on neutron logs see References section in this guide.  
1.6 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This guide should not be used as a sole criterion for neutron logging and does not replace education, experience, and professional judgment. Neutron logging procedures should be adapted to meet the needs of a range of applications and stated in general terms so that flexibility or innovation are not suppressed. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word standard in the title of this document means that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.7 Units—The values stated in either inch-pound units or SI units given in brackets are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be use independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard. Add if appropriate: “Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.”  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysical methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method to produce results under average field conditions when compared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A” rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple methods that can be successfully applied. There may also be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a lower cost. The final selection must be made considering site specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is critical to have an experienced professional make the final decision as to the method(s) selected.  
5.1.1 Benson (1)  provides one of the earlier guides to the application of geophysics to environmental problems.  
5.1.2 Ward (2) is a three-volume compendium that deals with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and environmental problems.  
5.1.3 Butler (3) provides detailed technical explanations of near-surface geophysical methods and includes several detailed case histories  
5.1.4 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual (4) provides introductory chapters for the methods of Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations. This manual can be downloaded for no charge from the Corps of Engineers website.  
5.1.5 Olhoeft (5) provides an expert system for helping select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites.  
5.1.6 The U.S. EPA (6) provides an excellent literature review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated sites.  
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:  
5.2.1 A primary factor affecting the accuracy of site investigation results is the number of test locations. Insufficient spatial sampling to adequately characterize the conditions at a site can result if the number of samples is too small. Interpolation bet...
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1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, and environmental site investigations and subsequent site characterization, as well as forensic and archaeological applications. These geophysical methods are rarely the sole method used in the site investigation and are often used for pre-screening to guide how and where drilling, sampling or other targeted in-situ testing are conducted. This guide does not describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Individual guides have been developed for many surface geophysical methods.  
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and pore fluids, as well as buried objects.  
1.3 This guide provides an overview of applications for which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-27)2 and with Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, D6285, D6430, D6431, D6432, D6820, D7046, and D7128, as well as Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Methods D4428/D4428M, D7400/D7400M, and G57.  
1.4 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references cited in this guide, should be consulted.  
1.5 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon many factors. One of the most important factors is the competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the method's theory, field procedures, and interpretation along with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to successful...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts:  
5.1.1 All TDEM/TEM instruments are based on the concept that a time-varying magnetic field generated by a change in the current flowing in a large loop on the ground will cause current to flow in the earth below it (Fig. 3). In the typical TDEM/TEM system, these earth-induced currents are generated by abruptly terminating a steady current flowing in the transmitter loop (2). The currents induced in the earth material move downward and outward with time and, in a horizontally layered earth, the strength of the currents is directly related to the ground conductivity at that depth. These currents decay exponentially. The decay lasts microseconds, except in the cases of a highly conductive ore body or conductive layer when the decay can last up to a second. Hence, many measurements can be made in a short time period allowing the data quality to be improved by stacking.  
5.1.2 Most TDEM/TEM systems use a square wave transmitter current with the measurements taken during the off-time (Fig. 2) with the total measurement period of less than a minute. Because the strength of the signal depends on the induced current strength and secondary magnetic field, the depth of site characterization depends on the magnetic moment of the transmitter.  
5.1.3 A typical transient response, or receiver voltage measured, for a homogeneous subsurface (half-space) is shown in Fig. 4. The resistivity of the subsurface is obtained from the late stage response. If there are two horizontal layers with different resistivities, the response or receiver output voltage is similar to the curves shown in Fig. 5.  
5.2.8 Variations in temperature above freezing will affect resistivity measurements as a result of the temperature dependence of the resistivity of the pore fluid, which is of the order of 2 % per degree Celsius. Thus, data from measurements made in winter can be quite different from those made in summer.  
5.2.9 As the ground temperature decreases below freezing, the ...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials and their pore fluids using the Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) method. This method is also known as the Transient Electromagnetic (TEM) Method, and in this guide is referred to as the TDEM/TEM method. Time Domain and Transient refer to the measurement of a time-varying induced electromagnetic field.  
1.1.2 The TDEM/TEM method is applicable to the subsurface site characterization for a wide range of conditions. TDEM/TEM methods measure variations in the electrical resistivity (or the reciprocal, the electrical conductivity) of the subsurface soil or rock caused by both lateral and vertical variations in various physical properties of the soil or rock. By measuring both lateral and vertical changes in resistivity, variations in subsurface conditions can be determined.  
1.1.3 Electromagnetic measurements of resistivity as described in this guide are applied in geologic studies, geotechnical studies, hydrologic site characterizations, and for mapping subsurface conditions at waste disposal sites (1).2 Resistivity measurements can be used to map geologic changes such as lithology, geological structure, fractures, stratigraphy, and depth to bedrock. In addition, measurement of resistivity can be applied to hydrologic site characterizations such as the depth to water table, depth to aquitard, presence of coastal or inland groundwater salinity, and for the direct exploration for groundwater.  
1.1.4 This standard does not address the use of TDEM/TEM method for use as metal detectors or their use in unexploded ordnance (UXO) detection and characterization. While many of the principles apply the data acquisition and interpretation differ from those set forth in this standard guide.  
1.1.5 General references for the use of the method are McNeill (2), Kearey an...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts:  
This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures and interpretation methods used for the characterization of subsurface materials and geological structure as based on their properties to conduct, enhance or obstruct the flow of electrical currents as induced in the ground by an alternating electromagnetic field.
The frequency domain method requires a transmitter or energy source, a transmitter coil, receiver electronics, a receiver coil, and interconnect cables (Fig. 5).
The transmitter coil, when placed on or near the earth's surface and energized with an alternating current, induces small currents in the near earth material proportional to the conductivity of the material. These induced alternating currents generate a secondary magnetic field (Hs), which is sensed with the primary field (Hp) by the receiver coil.
Under a constraint known as the “low induction number approximation” (McNeill, 1980) and when the subsurface is nonmagnetic, the secondary magnetic field is fully out-of-phase with the primary field and is given by a function of these variables.
where: σa=  apparent conductivity in siemens/meter, S/m, ω=  2πf in radians/sec; f = frequency in Hz, µo=  permeability of free space in henrys/meter 4π × 10–7, /m, s=  intercoil spacing in meters, m, and Hs/Hp=  the ratio of the out-of-phase component of the secondary magnetic field to the primary magnetic field, both measured by the receiver coil.
Perhaps the most important constraint is that the depth of penetration (skin depth, see section 6.5.3.1) of the electromagnetic wave generated by the transmitter be much greater than the intercoil spacing of the instrument. The depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the ground conductivity and instrument frequency. For example, an instrument with an intercoil spacing of 10 m (33 ft) and a frequency of 6400 Hz, using the vertical dipole, meets the low induction number assumption for earth conductivities less than 200 mS/m.
Multi...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface conditions using the frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) method.
1.1.2 FDEM measurements as described in this standard guide are applicable to mapping subsurface conditions for geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, environmental, agricultural, archaeological and forensic investigations as well as mineral exploration.
1.1.3 The FDEM method is sometimes used to map such diverse geologic conditions as depth to bedrock, fractures and fault zones, voids and sinkholes, soil and rock properties, and saline intrusion as well as man-induced environmental conditions including buried drums, underground storage tanks (USTs), landfill boundaries and conductive groundwater contamination.
1.1.4 The FDEM method utilizes the secondary magnetic field induced in the earth by a time-varying primary magnetic field to explore the subsurface. It measures the amplitude and phase of the induced field at various frequencies. FDEM measurements therefore are dependent on the electrical properties of the subsurface soil and rock or buried man-made objects as well as the orientation of any subsurface geological features or man-made objects. In many cases, the FDEM measurements can be used to identify the subsurface structure or object. This method is used only when it is expected that the subsurface soil or rock, man-made materials or geologic structure can be characterized by differences in electrical conductivity.
1.1.5 The FDEM method may be used instead of the Direct Current Resistivity method (Guide D6431) when surface soils are excessively insulating (for example, dry or frozen) or a layer of asphalt or plastic or other logistical constraints prevent electrode to soil contact.
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This standard guide provides an overview of the FDEM method using coplanar coils ...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts:
This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for using the TDEM/TEM method for determination of those subsurface conditions that cause variations in subsurface resistivity. Personnel requirements are as discussed in Practice D3740.
All TDEM/TEM instruments are based on the concept that a time-varying magnetic field generated by a change in the current flowing in a large loop on the ground will cause current to flow in the earth below it (Fig. 3). In the typical TDEM/TEM system, these earth-induced currents are generated by abruptly terminating a steady current flowing in the transmitter loop (2). The currents induced in the earth material move downward and outward with time and, in a horizontally layered earth, the strength of the currents is directly related to the ground conductivity at that depth. These currents decay exponentially. The decay lasts microseconds, except in the cases of a highly conductive ore body or conductive layer when the decay can last up to a second. Hence, many measurements can be made in a short time period allowing the data quality to be improved by stacking.
Most TDEM/TEM systems use a square wave transmitter current with the measurements taken during the off-time (Fig. 2) with the total measurement period of less than a minute. Because the strength of the signal depends on the induced current strength and secondary magnetic field, the depth of investigation depends on the magnetic moment of the transmitter.
A typical transient response, or receiver voltage measured, for a homogeneous subsurface (half-space) is shown in Fig. 4. The resistivity of the subsurface is obtained from the late stage response. If there are two horizontal layers with different resistivities, the response or receiver output voltage is similar to the curves shown in Fig. 5.
Parameter Measured and Representative Values:
The TDEM/TEM technique is used to measure the resistivity of subsurface materials. ...
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1.1 Purpose and Application—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials and their pore fluids using the Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) method. This method is also known as the Transient Electromagnetic Method (TEM), and in this guide is referred to as the TDEM/TEM method. Time Domain and Transient refer to the measurement of a time-varying induced electromagnetic field.
1.1.1 The TDEM/TEM method is applicable to investigation of a wide range of subsurface conditions. TDEM/TEM methods measure variations in the electrical resistivity (or the reciprocal, the electrical conductivity) of the subsurface soil or rock caused by both lateral and vertical variations in various physical properties of the soil or rock. By measuring both lateral and vertical changes in resistivity, variations in subsurface conditions can be determined.
1.1.2 Electromagnetic measurements of resistivity as described in this guide are applied in geologic studies, geotechnical studies, hydrologic investigations, and for mapping subsurface conditions at waste disposal sites (1). Resistivity measurements can be used to map geologic changes such as lithology, geological structure, fractures, stratigraphy, and depth to bedrock. In addition, measurement of resistivity can be applied to hydrologic investigations such as the depth to water table, depth to aquitard, presence of coastal or inland groundwater salinity, and for the direct exploration for groundwater.
1.1.3 General references for the use of the method are McNeill (2), Kearey and Brooks (3), and Telford et al (4).
1.2 Limitations:
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the TDEM/TEM method. It does not provide or address the details of the theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is r...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
An adequate soil, rock, and groundwater investigation will provide pertinent information for decision making on one or more of the following subjects:
Optimum location of the structure, both vertically and horizontally, within the area of the proposed construction.
Location and preliminary evaluation of suitable borrow and other local sources of construction aggregates.
Need for special excavating and dewatering techniques with the corresponding need for information, even if only approximate, on the distribution of soil water content or pore pressure, or both, and on the piezometric heads and apparent permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of the various subsurface strata.
Investigation of slope stability in natural slopes, cuts, and embankments.
Conceptual selection of embankment types and hydraulic barrier requirements.
Conceptual selection of alternate foundation types and elevations of the corresponding suitable bearing strata.
Development of additional detailed subsurface investigations for specific structures or facilities.
The investigation may require the collection of sufficiently large soil and rock samples of such quality as to allow adequate testing to determine the soil or rock classification or mineralogic type, or both, and the engineering properties pertinent to the proposed design.  
This guide is not meant to be an inflexible description of investigation requirements; methods defined by other ASTM standards or non-ASTM techniques may be appropriate in some circumstances. The intent is to provide a checklist to assist in the design of an exploration/investigation plan.
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1.1 This guide refers to ASTM methods by which soil, rock, and groundwater conditions may be determined. The objective of the investigation should be to identify and locate, both horizontally and vertically, significant soil and rock types and groundwater conditions present within a given site area and to establish the characteristics of the subsurface materials by sampling or in situ testing, or both.
1.2 Laboratory testing of soil, rock, and groundwater samples is specified by other ASTM standards not listed herein. Subsurface exploration for environmental purposes will be the subject of a separate ASTM document.
1.3 Prior to commencement of any intrusive exploration the site should be checked for underground utilities. Should evidence of potentially hazardous or otherwise contaminated materials or conditions be encountered in the course of the investigation, work should be interrupted until the circumstances have been evaluated and revised instructions issued before resumption.
1.4 The values stated in (SI) inch-pound units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word“ Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
1.6 This guide does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
WITHDRAWN RATIONALE
This guide refers to ASTM methods by which soil, rock, and ground water conditions may be determined. The objective of the investigation should be to identify and locate, both horizontally and vertically, significant soil and rock type...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice addresses coal mining geospatial data in general, as well as data relative to SMCRA, 30 CFR Part 700, et seq., and 30 CFR Part 800, et seq. This practice is significant to the coal mining community because it provides uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to coal mining features throughout the United States. Currently, each coal producing state organizes their data in a different method with their own naming conventions and terminology. By establishing national geospatial data standards, guidance is provided to RA programs that do not have geospatial data standards of their own. This practice will create an easier and more efficient way to utilize and share coal mining geospatial data relative to SMCRA between RAs and the coal mining community.
The datasets may be served as layers, for example, in The National Map (http://nationalmap.gov), an online, interactive map service sponsored by a consortium of Federal, State, and local partners and hosted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).  
Some RA data for coal mining feature attributes may not have values. Those RAs may not collect those attributes as part of their regulatory program or those attributes may not be applicable within their area of responsibility. As a result, a national dataset of coal mining features may appear to be incomplete for those RAs.
Within its area of exclusive jurisdiction, each RA is the ADS for the coal mining geospatial data that it creates and uses to regulate mining activity.
Limitations of Use—Uses of a national dataset are limited by several factors affecting the completeness, currency, and accuracy, of various data sources.
Completeness—Participation in the compilation of spatial data may not be uniform across RAs, which may affect completeness, both in terms of spatial data, and associated attributes. For some RAs, this standard may not be applicable because features described herein do not occur within their area of responsibility.
Currency—Source data i...
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1.1 This practice defines a set of terms, procedures, and data required to define the accurate location and description of geospatial data for surface coal mining operations (CMO), underground coal mining extents, land reclamation and performance bond statuses, lands unsuitable for mining petitions (LUMP) and designated areas, coal spoil and refuse features, coal preparation plants, environmental resource monitoring locations (ERMLs), and postmining land uses.
1.2 This practice addresses mining geospatial data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). This geospatial data shall be obtained from each state, tribal, or federal coal mining regulatory authority (RA), or combinations thereof, authorized under SMCRA to regulate CMOs.
1.3 Units—The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulator limitations prior to use.
1.4.1 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the adequacy of a professional service, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
1.5 This practice applies to pre-SMCRA or post-SMCRA coal mining features or both.
1.6 Surface CMOs—As used in this practice, a surfac...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysical methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method to produce results under average field conditions when compared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A” rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple methods that can be applied with equal success. There may also be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a lower cost. The final selection must be made considering site specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is critical to have an experienced professional make the final decision as to the method(s) selected.
Benson (2) provides one of the earlier guides to the application of geophysics to environmental problems.
Ward (3) is a three-volume compendium that deals with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and environmental problems.
Olhoeft (4) provides an expert system for helping select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites.
EPA (5) provides an excellent literature review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated sites.
An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:  
A primary factor affecting the accuracy of geotechnical or environmental site characterization efforts is the number of sample points or borings. Insufficient spatial sampling to adequately characterize the conditions at a site can result if the number of samples is too small. Interpolation between these sample points may be difficult and may lead to an inaccurate site characterization. Benson (2) provides an assessment of the probability of target detection using only borings.
Surface and borehole geophysical measurements generally can be made relatively quickly, are minimally intrusive, and enable interpolation between known points of control. Continuous data acquisition can be obtained ...
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1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, and environmental investigations (hereafter referred to as site characterization), as well as forensic and archaeological applications. This guide does not describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Individual guides are being developed for each surface geophysical method.
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and pore fluids, as well as buried objects.
1.3 The geophysical methods presented in this guide are regularly used and have been proven effective for hydrologic, geologic, geotechnical, and hazardous waste site assessments.
1.4 This guide provides an overview of applications for which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-20) and with Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, and D6285, as well as Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Method G57.
1.5 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references cited in this guide, should be consulted.
1.6 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon many factors. One of the most important factors is the competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the method's theory, field procedures, and interpretation along with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to successfully complete a survey. Personnel not having specialized training or experience should be cautious about u...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts:  
This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods used for the determination of the depth, thickness and the seismic velocity of subsurface soil and rock or engineered materials, using the seismic refraction method.
Measurement of subsurface conditions by the seismic refraction method requires a seismic energy source, trigger cable (or radio link), geophones, geophone cable, and a seismograph (see Fig. 1).
The geophone(s) and the seismic source must be placed in firm contact with the soil or rock. The geophones are usually located in a line, sometimes referred to as a geophone spread. The seismic source may be a sledge hammer, a mechanical device that strikes the ground, or some other type of impulse source. Explosives are used for deeper refractors or special conditions that require greater energy. Geophones convert the ground vibrations into an electrical signal. This electrical signal is recorded and processed by the seismograph. The travel time of the seismic wave (from the source to the geophone) is determined from the seismic wave form. Fig. 2 shows a seismograph record using a single geophone. Fig. 3 shows a seismograph record using twelve geophones.
The seismic energy source generates elastic waves that travel through the soil or rock from the source. When the seismic wave reaches the interface between two materials of different seismic velocities, the waves are refracted according to Snell's Law (4, 8). When the angle of incidence equals the critical angle at the interface, the refracted wave moves along the interface between two materials, transmitting energy back to the surface (Fig. 1). This interface is referred to as a refractor.
A number of elastic waves are produced by a seismic energy source. Because the compressional P-wave has the highest seismic velocity, it is the first wave to arrive at each geophone (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3).
The P-wave velocity Vp  is dependent upon the bulk modulus, the sh...
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1.1 Purpose and Application—This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface conditions using the seismic refraction method. Seismic refraction measurements as described in this guide are applicable in mapping subsurface conditions for various uses including geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, environmental (1), mineral exploration, petroleum exploration, and archaeological investigations. The seismic refraction method is used to map geologic conditions including depth to bedrock, or to water table, stratigraphy, lithology, structure, and fractures or all of these. The calculated seismic wave velocity is related to mechanical material properties. Therefore, characterization of the material (type of rock, degree of weathering, and rippability) is made on the basis of seismic velocity and other geologic information.
1.1.1 The geotechnical industry uses English or SI units.
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the seismic refraction method using compressional (P) waves. It does not address the details of the seismic refraction theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the seismic refraction method be familiar with the relevant material in this guide and the references cited in the text and with appropriate ASTM standards cited in 2.1.
1.2.2 This guide is limited to the commonly used approach to seismic refraction measurements made on land. The seismic refraction method can be adapted for a number of special uses, on land, within a borehole and on water. However, a discussion of these other adaptations of seismic refraction measurements is not included in this guide.
1.2.3 There are certain cases in which shear waves need to be measured to satisfy project requirements. The measuremen...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of caliper logs. This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.
The benefits of its use include the following: improving selection of caliper logging methods and equipment, caliper log quality and reliability, and usefulness of the caliper log data for subsequent display and interpretation.
This guide applies to commonly used caliper logging methods for geotechnical applications.
It is essential that personnel (see the Personnel section of Guide D5753) consult up-to-date textbooks and reports on the caliper technique, application, and interpretation methods.
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1.1 This guide covers the general procedures necessary to conduct caliper logging of boreholes, wells, access tubes, caissons, or shafts (hereafter referred as boreholes) as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater, and environmental (hereafter referred as geotechnical) investigations. Caliper logging for mineral or petroleum exploration and development are excluded.
1.1.1 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
1.2 This guide defines a caliper log as a record of borehole diameter with depth.
1.2.1 Caliper logs are essential in the interpretation of geophysical logs since they can be significantly affected by borehole diameter.
1.2.2 Caliper logs are commonly used to measure borehole diameter, shape, roughness, and stability; calculate borehole volume; provide information on borehole construction; and delineate lithologic contacts, fractures, and solution cavities and other openings.
1.2.2.1 Borehole-diameter information is essential for calculation of volumetric rate from flowmeter logs.
1.2.2.2 Caliper logs provide useful information for borehole completion and testing.
1.2.2.3 Caliper logs are used to locate the optimum placement of inflatable packers for borehole testing. Inflatable packers can only form an effective seal within a specified range of borehole diameters, and can be damaged if they are set in rough or irregular parts of the borehole.
1.2.2.4 Caliper logs are used to estimate the volume of borehole completion material (cement, gravel, etc.) needed to fill the annular space between borehole and casing(s) or well screen.
1.2.2.5 Caliper logs may be applied to correlate lithology between boreholes based upon enlargements related to lithology. The measured borehole diameter may be significantly different than the drilled diameter because of plastic formations extruded into the borehole and friable formations enlarging the borehole. A series of caliper logs may also show increases or decreases in borehole diameter with time.
1.3 This guide is restricted to mechanically based devices with spring-loaded arms, which are the most common calipers used in caliper logging with geotechnical applications.
1.4 This guide provides an overview of caliper logging, including general procedures, specific documentation, calibration and standardization, and log quality and interpretation.
1.5 To obtain additional information on caliper logs see Section 9 of this guide.
1.6 This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.
1.7 This guide should not be used as a sole criterion for caliper logging and does not replace pr...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and data processing methods used to interpret geologic conditions, and to identify and provide locations of geologic anomalies and man-made objects with the GPR method. The GPR uses high-frequency-pulsed EM waves (from 10 to 3000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. Energy is propagated downward into the ground from a transmitting antenna and is reflected back to a receiving antenna from subsurface boundaries between media possessing different EM properties. The reflected signals are recorded to produce a scan or trace of radar data. Typically, scans obtained as the antenna(s) are moved over the ground surface are placed side by side to produce a radar profile.
The vertical scale of the radar profile is in units of two-way travel time, the time it takes for an EM wave to travel down to a reflector and back to the surface. The travel time may be converted to depth by relating it to on-site measurements or assumptions about the velocity of the radar waves in the subsurface materials.
Vertical variations in propagation velocity due to changing EM properties of the subsurface can make it difficult to apply a linear time scale to the radar profile (Ulriksen (32)).  
Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:  
Two-Way Travel Time and Velocity—A GPR trace is the record of the amplitude of EM energy that has been reflected from interfaces between materials possessing different EM properties and recorded as a function of two-way travel time. To convert two-way times to depths, it is necessary to estimate or determine the propagation velocity of the EM pulses. The relative permittivity of the material (εr) through which the EM pulse propagates mostly determines the propagation velocity of the EM wave. The propagation velocity through the material is approximated using the following relationship (see full formula in Balanis (33)):
where: c=  propagation velocity in free space (3 × 108m/...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials using the impulse Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Method. GPR is most often employed as a technique that uses high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves (from 10 to 3000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. GPR detects changes in EM properties (dielectric permittivity, conductivity, and magnetic permeability), that in a geologic setting, are a function of soil and rock material, water content, and bulk density. Data are normally acquired using antennas placed on the ground surface or in boreholes. The transmitting antenna radiates EM waves that propagate in the subsurface and reflect from boundaries at which there are EM property contrasts. The receiving GPR antenna records the reflected waves over a selectable time range. The depths to the reflecting interfaces are calculated from the arrival times in the GPR data if the EM propagation velocity in the subsurface can be estimated or measured.
1.1.2 GPR measurements as described in this guide are used in geologic, engineering, hydrologic, and environmental applications. The GPR method is used to map geologic conditions that include depth to bedrock, depth to the water table (Wright et al (1) ), depth and thickness of soil strata on land and under fresh water bodies (Beres and Haeni (2)), and the location of subsurface cavities and fractures in bedrock (Ulriksen (3) and Imse and Levine (4)). Other applications include the location of objects such as pipes, drums, tanks, cables, and boulders , mapping landfill and trench boundaries (Benson et al (6)), mapping contaminants (Cosgrave et al (7); Brewster and Annan (8); Daniels et al (9)), conducting archaeological (Vaughan (10)) and forensic investigations (Davenport et al (11)), inspection of brick, masonry, and concrete structures, roads and railroad trackbed studie...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice addresses AML PAs, PUs, Keyword Features, and Project Sites relative to SMCRA. This practice is significant as it provides for uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to the geographic location and description of AML sites located throughout the United States.
This geospatial data standard will help ensure uniformity of data contributed by each RA and assist organizations in efforts to create, utilize, and share geospatial data relative to SMCRA. Use of this standard will result in organized and accessible data to support programmatic decisions and work plan development, increased awareness of AML problems throughout the United States, and better communication between RA and federal offices, the public, industry, and other interested parties.
The geospatial data may be served as a layer in a national dataset and map service.
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1.1 This practice covers the minimum elements for the accurate location and description of geospatial data for defining Abandoned Mine Land (AML) Problem Areas, Planning Units, Keyword Features, and Project Sites.
1.1.1 This practice addresses mining geospatial data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). This geospatial data shall be obtained from each state, tribal or federal coal mining regulatory authority (RA), or combinations thereof, authorized under SMCRA to reclaim the surface and underground effects of past mining operations. Abandoned mine land, as specified in SMCRA Sections 404 (coal), 409 and 411 (non-coal) and cross referenced in additional sections on eligible lands, consist of those lands and waters which were mined for coal or other minerals, or both, or impacted by processing operations prior to the enactment of SMCRA and abandoned or left in an inadequate condition of reclamation and for which there is no continuing reclamation responsibility under state or other federal laws for mitigation of adverse impacts to human health and safety or environmental resources.
1.1.2 Title IV of SMCRA establishes the national AML Reclamation Program under the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI). The program was developed to reclaim land and water resources adversely affected by past coal and non-coal mining and left abandoned or inadequately restored. During the years immediately following the enactment of SMCRA, OSMRE, states, and Indian tribes conducted surveys of eligible lands and waters and created individual inventories of problems to be addressed under Title IV. In 1990, SMCRA was amended and OSMRE was required to maintain a national inventory of high priority abandoned mine sites and provide standardized procedures for states and tribes to use in updating the data. The need for an automated nationwide inventory system led to the creation of the enhanced AML Inventory System (e-AMLIS), a compilation of the individual state, tribe, Federal Reclamation Program (FRP), and Rural Abandoned Mine Program (RAMP) inventories. The e-AMLIS documents the counts for AML problem types and the costs to remedy those problems. The system captures estimated unfunded costs, estimated construction costs when funding is made available for reclamation projects, and the actual costs for completed construction projects. It is used in support of work plan development and to record the work completed under each RA’s program and to report the extent and estimated cost to reclaim remaining AML problems.
1.1.3 Each state in the United States of America has been divided into Water Cataloging Units (WCU) by the U. S. Water Resources Council. These appear in the state’s Hydrologic Unit Map prepared by the U.S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Water Resources Council. The WCU are divided and sub-divided into successively smaller hydrologic units, which are classified into four levels: regions, sub-regions, accounting un...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of gamma logs. This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.
The benefits of its use include improving selection of gamma logging methods and equipment, gamma log quality and reliability, and usefulness of the gamma log data for subsequent display and interpretation.
This guide applies to commonly used gamma logging methods for geotechnical applications.
It is essential that personnel (see the Personnel section of Guide D5753) consult up-to-date textbooks and reports on the gamma technique, application, and interpretation methods.
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1.1 This guide covers the general procedures necessary to conduct gamma, natural gamma, total count gamma, or gamma ray (hereafter referred to as gamma) logging of boreholes, wells, access tubes, caissons, or shafts (hereafter referred to as boreholes) as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater, and environmental (hereafter referred to as geotechnical) investigations. Spectral gamma and logging where gamma measurements are made in conjunction with a nuclear source are excluded (for example, neutron activation and gamma-gamma density logs). Gamma logging for minerals or petroleum applications are excluded.
1.2 This guide defines a gamma log as a record of gamma activity of the formation adjacent to a borehole with depth (See Fig. 1).
1.2.1 Gamma logs are commonly used to delineate lithology, correlate measurements made on different logging runs, and define stratigraphic correlation between boreholes (See Fig. 2).
1.3 This guide is restricted to gamma logging with nuclear counters consisting of scintillation detectors (crystals coupled with photomultiplier tubes), which are the most common gamma measurement devices used in geotechnical applications.
1.4 This guide provides an overview of gamma logging including general procedures, specific documentation, calibration and standardization, and log quality and interpretation.
1.5 To obtain additional information on gamma logs, see Section 13.
1.6 This guide is to be used in conjunction with Guide D5753.
1.7 Gamma logs should be collected by an operator that is trained in geophysical logging procedures. Gamma logs should be interpreted by a professional experienced in log analysis.
1.8 The geotechnical industry uses English or SI units. The gamma log is typically recorded in units of counts per second (cps) or American Petroleum Institute (API) units.
1.9 This guide does not purport to address all of the safety and liability problems (for example, lost or lodged probes and equipment decontamination) associated with its use.
1.10 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.11 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
Note—This figure demonstrates how the log can be used to identify specific formations, illustrating scale wrap-around for a local gamma peak, and showing how the contact between two formations is picked to coincide with the half-way point of the transition b...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide is intended to encourage consistency in the analysis, interpretation, and modeling of spatial variation.
This guide should be used in conjunction with Guides D5549, D5923, and D5924.
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1.1 This guide covers recommendations for analyzing, interpreting, and modeling spatial variation of regionalized variables in geotechnical and environmental site investigations.
1.2 The measures of spatial variation discussed in this guide include variograms and correlograms; these are fully described in Refs. (1-4).  
1.3 This guide is intended to assist those who are already familiar with the geostatistical tools discussed herein and does not provide introductory information on the analysis, interpretation, and modeling of spatial variation.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide, when used in conjunction with Guide D5730, provides direction to the selection of the various ASTM standards that are available for the investigation of soil, rock, the vadose zone, groundwater, and other media where the investigations have an environmental purpose and are conducted in cold regions of the world. It is intended to improve consistency of practice and to encourage rational planning of a site characterization program by providing information to assist in the design of an environmental reconnaissance or investigation plans. This guide is intended to provide information that will help minimize the effect of site characterization operations on areas of frozen ground or permafrost and increase the safety of environmental operations in cold regions.  
This guide presents information and references for site characterization for environmental purposes in cold regions of the world.
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1.1 Use this guide in conjunction with Guide D5730.  
1.2 This guide describes special problems to be considered when planning field investigations in cold regions. The primary focus of this guide is presenting the special problems and concerns of site characterization in the cold regions of the world.  
1.3 Laboratory testing of soil, rock, and groundwater samples is specified by other ASTM standards that are not specifically discussed in this guide. Laboratory methods for measurement of physical properties relevant to environmental investigations are included in Guide D5730.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.5 This guide emphasizes the care that must be taken by all field personnel during operations in tundra and permafrost areas of the world.  
1.6 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods used for the determination of subsurface conditions due to density variations using the gravity method. Gravity measurements can be used to map major geologic features over hundreds of square miles and to detect shallow smaller features in soil or rock. In some areas, the gravity method can detect subsurface cavities.
Another benefit of the gravity method is that measurements can be made in many culturally developed areas, where other geophysical methods may not work. For example, gravity measurements can be made inside buildings; in urban areas; and in areas of cultural, electrical, and electromagnetic noise.
Measurement of subsurface conditions by the gravity method requires a gravimeter (Fig. 1) and a means of determining location and very accurate relative elevations of gravity stations.
The unit of measurement used in the gravity method is the gal, based on the gravitational force at the Earth's surface. The average gravity at the Earth's surface is approximately 980 gal. The unit commonly used in regional gravity surveys is the milligal (10−3 gal). Typical gravity surveys for environmental and engineering applications require measurements with an accuracy of a few μgals (10−6 gals), they are often referred to as microgravity surveys.
A detailed gravity survey typically uses closely spaced measurement stations (a few feet to a few hundred feet) and is carried out with a gravimeter capable of reading to a few μgals. Detailed surveys are used to assess local geologic or structural conditions.
A gravity survey consists of making gravity measurements at stations along a profile line or grid. Measurements are taken periodically at a base station (a stable noise-free reference location) to correct for instrument drift.
Gravity data contain anomalies that are made up of deep regional and shallow local effects. It is the shallow local effects that are of interest in m...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface conditions using the gravity method.
1.1.2 The gravity method described in this guide is applicable to investigation of a wide range of subsurface conditions.
1.1.3 Gravity measurements indicate variations in the earth's gravitational field caused by lateral differences in the density of the subsurface soil or rock or the presence of natural voids or man-made structures. By measuring spatial changes in the gravitational field, variations in subsurface conditions can be determined.
1.1.4 Detailed gravity surveys (commonly called microgravity surveys) are used for near-surface geologic investigations and geotechnical, environmental, and archaeological studies. Geologic and geotechnical applications include location of buried channels, bedrock structural features, voids, and caves, and low-density zones in foundations. Environmental applications include site characterization, groundwater studies, landfill characterization, and location of underground storage tanks (1) .
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the gravity method. It does not address the details of the gravity theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the gravity method be familiar with the references cited and with the Guides D420, D5753, D6235, and D6429, and Practices D5088, and D5608.  
1.2.2 This guide is limited to gravity measurements made on land. The gravity method can be adapted for a number of special uses: on land, in a borehole, on water, and from aircraft and space. A discussion of these other gravity methods, including vertical gravity gradient measurements, is not included in this guide.
1.2.3 The approaches sugg...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide is intended to encourage consistency and thoroughness in the application of geostatistical simulation to environmental, geotechnical, and hydrogeological site investigations.
This guide may be used to assist those performing a simulation study or as an explanation of procedures for qualified nonparticipants who may be reviewing or auditing the study.
This guide should be used in conjunction with Guides D5549, D5922, and D5923.
This guide describes conditions for which simulation or particular simulation approaches are recommended. However, these approaches are not necessarily inappropriate if the stated conditions are not encountered.
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1.1 This guide covers the conditions that determine the selection of a suitable simulation approach for a site investigation problem. Alternative simulation approaches considered here are conditional and nonconditional, indicator and Gaussian, single and multiple realization, point, and block.
1.2 This guide describes the conditions for which the use of simulation is an appropriate alternative to the use of estimation in geostatistical site investigations.
1.3 This guide does not discuss the basic principles of geostatistics. Introductions to geostatistics may be found in numerous texts including Refs (1-3).  
1.4 This guide is concerned with general simulation approaches only and does not discuss particular simulation algorithms currently in use. These are described in Refs (4-6).
1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice should be used as the initial step for evaluating a site for its potential to support an on-site septic system and to determine the best location for subsurface observations as covered in Practice D5921.
This practice should be used by individuals involved with the evaluation of properties for the use of on-site septic systems. Such individuals may be required to be licensed, certified, or meet minimum educational requirements by the local or state regulatory authority. Generally, such individuals should be familiar with the appropriate regulatory requirements governing the design and placement of on-site septic systems for the area of the site being investigated, and at least some experience or training in geomorphology, soils, geology, and hydrology.  
This practice is one step in the design of an on-site septic system that also includes subsurface characterization, see Practice D5921, staking and protection of the soil absorption or constructed filter bed area, see Practice D5925, selection of system type, and design of the system size and configuration. Typically, the same individual will perform the surface and subsurface characterization of a site. Local regulation and practice will determine whether the same individual is responsible for all steps in the process of locating and designing an on-site septic system. Effective surface and subsurface characterization of a site for on-site septic systems, however, requires some knowledge of the following for the county or state in which the site is located: (1) on-site septic system types typically used for different soil conditions, and (2) typical soil absorption/filter bed areas required for different wastewater flow rates and areal soil wastewater loading rates.
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1.1 This practice covers procedures for the characterization of surface conditions at a site for evaluating suitability for an on-site septic system for disposal and treatment of wastewater. This practice provides a method for identifying potentially suitable areas for soil absorption of septic tank wastewater.
1.2 This practice can be used at any site where on-site treatment of residential and nonhazardous commercial wastewaters using septic tanks and natural soils or constructed filter beds is required or an option under consideration. This practice may also be useful when constructed wetlands are used as an alternative wastewater treatment method.
1.3 This practice should be used in conjunction with Practices D5921 and D5925.
1.4 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide is intended to encourage consistency and thoroughness in the application of kriging methods to environmental, geotechnical, and hydrogeological site investigations.
This guide may be used to assist those performing a kriging study or as an explanation of procedures for qualified nonparticipants that may be reviewing or auditing the study.
This guide encourages the use of site-specific information for the selection of an appropriate kriging method; however, the quality of data, the sampling density, and site coverage cannot be improved or compensated by any choice of kriging method.
This guide describes conditions for which kriging or particular kriging methods are recommended. However, these methods are not necessarily inappropriate if the stated conditions are not encountered.
This guide should be used in conjunction with Guides D5549, D5922, and D5924.
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1.1 This guide covers recommendations for selecting appropriate kriging methods based on study objectives, exploratory data analysis, and analysis of spatial variation.
1.2 This guide considers commonly used forms of kriging, including ordinary kriging, simple kriging, lognormal kriging, universal kriging, and indicator kriging. Multivariate, space-time, and other less-frequently used kriging methods are not discussed; however, this is not intended to reflect any judgement as to the validity of these methods.
1.3 This guide describes conditions for which kriging methods are not appropriate and for which geostatistical simulations approaches should be used.
1.4 This guide does not discuss non-geostatistical alternatives to kriging, such as splines or inverse-distance techniques.
1.5 This guide does not discuss the basic principles of kriging. Introductions to geostatistics and kriging may be found in numerous texts including Refs (1-3). A review of kriging methods is given in Ref. (4).
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.7 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts—The resistivity technique is used to measure the resistivity of subsurface materials. Although the resistivity of materials can be a good indicator of the type of subsurface material present, it is not a unique indicator. While the resistivity method is used to measure the resistivity of earth materials, it is the interpreter who, based on knowledge of local geologic conditions and other data, must interpret resistivity data and arrive at a reasonable geologic and hydrologic interpretation.
Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:  
Table 1 shows some general trends for resistivity values. Fig. 2 shows ranges in resistivity values for subsurface materials.
Materials with either a low effective porosity or that lack conductive pore fluids have a relatively high resistivity (>1000 Ωm). These materials include massive limestones, most unfractured igneous rocks, unsaturated unconsolidated materials, and ice.
Materials that have high porosity with conductive pore fluids or that consist of or contain clays usually have low resistivity. These include clay soil and weathered rock.
Materials whose pore water has low salinity have moderately high resistivity.
The dependence of resistivity on water saturation is not linear. Resistivity increases relatively little as saturation decreases from 100 % to 40-60 % and then increases much more as saturation continues to decrease. An empirical relationship known as Archie's Law describes the relationship between pore fluid resistivity, porosity, and bulk resistivity (McNeill (8)).
Equipment—Geophysical apparatus used for surface resistivity measurement includes a source of power, a means to measure the current, a high impedance voltmeter, electrodes to make contact with the ground, and the necessary cables to connect the electrodes to the power sources and the volt meter (Fig. 1).
While resistivity measurements can be made using common electronic instruments, it is recommended that commercial resisti...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of the electrical properties of subsurface materials and their pore fluids, using the direct current (DC) resistivity method. Measurements of the electrical properties of subsurface materials are made from the land surface and yield an apparent resistivity. These data can then be interpreted to yield an estimate of the depth, thickness, and resistivity of subsurface layer(s).
1.1.2 Resistivity measurements as described in this guide are applied in geological, geotechnical, environmental, and hydrologic investigations. The resistivity method is used to map geologic features such as lithology, structure, fractures, and stratigraphy; hydrologic features such as depth to water table, depth to aquitard, and groundwater salinity; and to delineate groundwater contaminants. General references are, Keller and Frischknecht (1), Zohdy et al (2), Koefoed (3), EPA (4), Ward (5), Griffiths and King (6), and Telford et al (7).
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the Direct Current Resistivity Method. It does not address in detail the theory, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the resistivity method be familiar with the references cited in the text and with the Guide D420, Practice D5088, Practice D5608, Guide D5730, Test Method G57, D6429, and D6235.
1.2.2 This guide is limited to the commonly used approach for resistivity measurements using sounding and profiling techniques with the Schlumberger, Wenner, or dipole-dipole arrays and modifications to those arrays. It does not cover the use of a wide range of specialized arrays. It also does not include the use of spontaneous potential (SP) measurements, induced polarizati...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Concepts:
This guide summarizes the basic equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods used for detecting, delineating, or mapping shallow subsurface features and relative changes in layer geometry or stratigraphy using the seismic-reflection method. Common applications of the method include mapping the top of bedrock, delineating bed or layer geometries, identifying changes in subsurface material properties, detecting voids or fracture zones, mapping faults, defining the top of the water table, mapping confining layers, and estimating of elastic-wave velocity in subsurface materials. Personnel requirements are as discussed in Practice D3740.
Subsurface measurements using the seismic-reflection method require a seismic source, multiple seismic sensors, multi-channel seismograph, and appropriate connections (radio or hardwire) between each (Fig. 1, also showing optional roll-along switch).
Seismic waves generated by a controlled seismic energy source propagate in the form of mechanical energy (particle motion) from the source through the ground or air to seismic sensors where the particle (ground) motion is converted to electrical voltage and transmitted to the seismograph.
Seismic energy travels away from the source both through the ground and air. In the ground, the energy travels as an elastic wave, with compressional waves (Eq 1) and shear waves (Eq 2) moving away from the source in a hemispherical pattern, and surface waves propagating away in a circular pattern on the ground surface.
Seismic energy propagation time between seismic sensors depends on wave type, travel path, and seismic velocity of the material. The travel path of reflected body waves (compressional (P) and shear (S) waves) is controlled by subsurface material velocity and geometry of interfaces defined by acoustic impedance (product of velocity and density) changes. A difference in acoustic impedance between two layers results in an impedance contrast across the boundary...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the technique, equipment, field procedures, data processing, and interpretation methods for the assessment of shallow subsurface conditions using the seismic-reflection method.
1.1.2 Seismic reflection measurements as described in this guide are applicable in mapping shallow subsurface conditions for various uses including geologic (1), geotechnical, hydrogeologic (2), and environmental (3). The seismic-reflection method is used to map, detect, and delineate geologic conditions including the bedrock surface, confining layers (aquitards), faults, lithologic stratigraphy, voids, water table, fracture systems, and layer geometry (folds). The primary application of the seismic-reflection method is the mapping of lateral continuity of lithologic units and, in general, detection of change in acoustic properties in the subsurface.
1.1.3 This guide will focus on the seismic-reflection method as it is applied to the near surface. Near-surface seismic reflection applications are based on the same principles as those used for deeper seismic reflection surveying, but accepted practices can differ in several respects. Near-surface seismic-reflection data are generally high-resolution (dominant frequency above 80 Hz) and image depths from around 6 m to as much as several hundred meters. Investigations shallower than 6 m have occasionally been undertaken, but these should be considered experimental.
1.2 Limitations:  
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the shallow seismic-reflection method, but it does not address the details of seismic theory, field procedures, data processing, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the seismic-reflection method be familiar with the relevant material in this guide, the references cited in the text, and ...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
The ESC Process—This practice describes a process for characterizing groundwater contamination at sites, that provides cost-effective, timely, high-quality information derived primarily from judgement-based sampling and measurements by an integrated, multidisciplinary project team during a limited number of field mobilizations. (See Appendix X1 for additional background on the ESC process, its distinction from traditional site characterization, and its relationship to other approaches to site characterization and Appendix X6 and Appendix X7 for illustrative examples of the ESC process.)
Determining Appropriateness of ESC—The ESC process should be initiated when an ESC client, regulatory authority, and stakeholders determine that contaminants at a site present a potential threat to human health or the environment and the ESC process will identify vadose zone, groundwater, and other contaminant migration pathways in a timely and cost-effective manner, especially when decisions concerning remedial or other action must be made as rapidly as possible. Situations where the process may be applicable are as follows:
CERCLA—CERCLA remedial investigation/feasibility studies (RI/FS). (See Appendix X2.) This practice should be used in conjunction with U.S. EPA (37)
RCRA—RCRA facility investigation/corrective measures studies (RFI/CMS). (See Appendix X2.)  
Note 4—The ESC process can be continued to include CERCLA feasibility studies and RCRA corrective measures studies (see Section 12), but this practice focuses on its use for site characterization. Section X1.4.5 describes the relationship of the ESC process to the DOE SAFER and EPA SACM programs for accelerating the cleanup of contaminated sites.  
ESA—Sites where environmental site assessments (ESAs) conducted by using Practice E1527, Practice E1528, and Guide E1903 identify levels of contamination requiring further, more intensive characterization of the geologic and hydrologic system of contaminant migration pathw...
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1.1 Applicability of the ECS Process—This practice covers a process for expedited site characterization (ESC) of hazardous waste contaminated sites to identify vadose zone, groundwater and other relevant contaminant migration pathways and determine the distribution, concentration, and fate of contaminants for the purpose of providing an ESC client, regulatory authority, and stakeholders with the necessary information to choose a course of action. Generally, the process is applicable to larger-scale projects, such as CERCLA (Superfund) remedial investigations and RCRA facility investigations. When used as part of the Superfund response process, this Practice should be used in conjunction with U.S. EPA's guidance document titled Using Dynamic Field Activities for On-Site Decision Making: A Guide for Project Managers (37). The ESC process is also applicable to other contaminated sites where the ESC process can be reasonably expected to reduce the time and cost of site characterization compared to alternative approaches. The ESC process has been applied successfully at a variety of sites in different states and EPA regions. (See Table X1.1). It typically achieves significant cost and schedule savings compared to traditional site characterization. (See X1.2 and X1.3) .
1.2 Features of the ESC Process—The ESC process operates within the framework of existing regulatory programs. It focuses on collecting only the information required to meet characterization objectives and on ensuring that characterization ceases as soon as the objectives are met. Central to the ESC process is the use of judgement-based sampling and measurement to characterize vadose zone and groundwater contamination in a limited number of field mobilizations by an integrated multidisciplinary team, led by a technical leader and operating within the framework of a dynamic work plan that gives him or her the flexibility of responsibility to select the type an...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
An appropriately developed, documented, and executed guide is essential for the proper collection and application of borehole geophysical logs.
The benefits of its use include improving the following:
Selection of logging methods and equipment,
Log quality and reliability, and
Usefulness of the log data for subsequent display and interpretation.
This guide applies to commonly used logging methods (see Table 1 and Table 2) for geotechnical investigations.
It is essential that personnel (see 7.3.3) consult up-to-date textbooks and reports on each of the logging techniques, applications, and interpretation methods. A partial list of selected publications is given at the end of this guide.
This guide is not meant to describe the specific or standard procedures for running each type of geophysical log and is limited to measurements in a single borehole.
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1.1 This guide covers the documentation and general procedures necessary to plan and conduct a geophysical log program as commonly applied to geologic, engineering, groundwater, and environmental (hereafter referred to as geotechnical) investigations. It is not intended to describe the specific or standard procedures for running each type of geophysical log and is limited to measurements in a single borehole. It is anticipated that standard guides will be developed for specific methods subsequent to this guide.
1.2 Surface or shallow-depth nuclear gages for measuring water content or soil density (that is, those typically thought of as construction quality assurance devices), measurements while drilling (MWD), cone penetrometer tests, and logging for petroleum or minerals are excluded.
1.3 Borehole geophysical techniques yield direct and indirect measurements with depth of the (1) physical and chemical properties of the rock matrix and fluid around the borehole, (2) fluid contained in the borehole, and (3) construction of the borehole.
1.4 To obtain detailed information on operating methods, publications (for example, 2, 5, 7, 18, 24, 29, 34, 35, and 36) should be consulted. A limited amount of tutorial information is provided, but other publications listed herein, including a glossary of terms and general texts on the subject, should be consulted for more complete background information.
1.5 This guide provides an overview of the following: (1) the uses of single borehole geophysical methods, (2) general logging procedures, (3) documentation, (4) calibration, and (5) factors that can affect the quality of borehole geophysical logs and their subsequent interpretation. Log interpretation is very important, but specific methods are too diverse to be described in this guide.
1.6 Logging procedures must be adapted to meet the needs of a wide range of applications and stated in general terms so that flexibility or innovation are not suppressed.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety and liability concerns, if any, (for example, lost or lodged probes and radioactive sources ) associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.8 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
WITHDRAWN RATIONALE
This guide...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice addresses coal mining geospatial boundary data relative to the SMCRA and 30 CFR Part 700 et seq. This practice is significant to the coal mining community because it provides uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to surface coal mining boundaries throughout the United States. The surface coal mining boundary is the first of the coal mining geospatial data standards to be developed for use by a RA. Within its area of exclusive jurisdiction, each RA is the authoritative data source (ADS) for coal mining spatial data that it creates and uses to implement SMCRA. These standards will help ensure uniformity of coal mining geospatial data used in internal business practices, exchanged among business partners within the coal mining community, and contributed by each ADS in future efforts to create national datasets describing surface coal mining in the United States.
Note 1—Currently, not all RAs have established datasets for coal mining geospatial data. Of those RAs that have coal mining geospatial datasets, each organizes their data in a different method, using their own coordinate system, and their own naming conventions and terminology. By establishing national data standards, RAs will have uniform guidance for the creation and management of coal mining geospatial data. In effect, this practice creates an easier and more efficient way to utilize and share surface coal mining boundary geospatial data among affected parties.
Surface coal mining geospatial data shall be obtained from State and Federal regulatory authorities for SCMO. The coal mining community encompasses all entities directly and indirectly affected by coal mining activities, including industry, environmental groups, the general public, and the government at all levels within the United States. Use of this standard will help create consistent maps and increase understanding of SCMO sites throughout the United States. This standard promotes the creation of well organized and easily acc...
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1.1 This practice covers the minimum elements for the accurate location and description of data for defining a surface coal mining permit boundary.
1.1.1 This practice addresses coal mining geospatial boundary data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). This geospatial data shall be obtained from each state or federal, or both, coal mining regulatory authority (RA) authorized under SMCRA to regulate surface coal mining operations (SCMO). Each RA shall be the authoritative data source (ADS) for coal mining geospatial data.
1.1.2 As used in this practice, a surface coal mining permit boundary represents an area where coal removal and reclamation and related supporting activities have occurred, is occurring, or is planned and authorized by the RA within a defined SCMO.
1.2 This practice is limited to surface coal mining operations after passage of SMCRA.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.4 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice addresses underground coal mining extent geospatial data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) and 30 CFR Part 700 et seq. This practice is significant to the coal mining community because it provides for uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to underground coal mine extents for mines located throughout the United States. These standards will help ensure uniformity of data contributed by each RA and assist organizations in future efforts to create and utilize geospatial data relative to underground coal mining extents in the United States. The first standard developed is Practice D 7384, Practice for Minimum Geospatial Data for a Coal Surface Mining Permit Boundary.
Underground mine geospatial data shall be obtained from State and Federal regulatory authorities for underground mining extents. The coal mining community encompasses all entities directly and indirectly affected by coal mining activities, including industry, environmental groups and the government at all levels within the United States. Use of this standard will help create consistent maps and increase awareness of underground mining extents throughout the United States. This standard creates well organized and easily accessible underground coal mining extents data, and it will lead to better communication between the RAs and federal offices, the public, industry and environmental groups.
As used in this practice, the geospatial data represents an area where coal removal occurred within a defined UCMO. An underground mine extent is defined as a polygon or polygons. A lack of data from any RA will create a gap in the national underground mining extents geospatial data set. This national coal mining data set consists of underground coal mining extents data from each RA, which will show the locations of underground coal mines throughout the United States. Currently, each coal producing state organizes their data in a different method, and their own ...
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1.1 This practice covers the minimum elements for the accurate location and description of data for defining underground coal mining extents.
1.1.1 This practice addresses coal mining geospatial data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). This geospatial data shall be obtained from each state, tribal, or federal (or combinations thereof) coal mining regulatory authority (RA) authorized under SMCRA to regulate the surface effects of underground coal mining operations (UCMO).
1.1.2 As used in this practice, underground coal mining extents represent an area where coal removal has occurred within a defined UCMO.
1.2 This practice applies to pre-SMCRA and post-SMCRA underground coal mining extents.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.5 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Exposure to beryllium can cause a potentially fatal disease, and occupational exposure limits for beryllium in air and on surfaces have been established to reduce exposure risks to potentially affected workers (2, 3). Measurement of beryllium in matrices such as soil, rock, sediment, and fly ash is important in environmental remediation projects involving beryllium contamination (4) and for establishment of background levels of beryllium at sites where anthropogenic beryllium may have been used (2). Sampling and analytical methods for beryllium are needed in order to meet the challenges relating to exposure assessment and risk reduction. Sampling and analysis methods, such as the procedure described in this test method, are desired in order to facilitate measurements of beryllium that can be used as a basis for management of remediation projects and protection of human health.
This test method can be used for purposes such as environmental remediation projects where beryllium is a contaminant of concern. It is also useful for characterization of levels of beryllium in soil at sites where beryllium is in mining or manufacturing applications, and for determination of background levels of beryllium in soil.
Note 1—The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D 3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing, sampling, inspection, etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D 3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D 3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
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1.1 This test method is intended for use in the determination of beryllium in samples of soil, rock, sediment, and fly ash. This test method can be used for purposes such as environmental remediation projects where beryllium is a contaminant of concern. It is also useful for characterization of levels of beryllium in soil at sites where beryllium is in mining or manufacturing applications, and for determination of background levels of beryllium in soil.
1.2 This test method assumes that samples of soil, rock, sediment, or fly ash are collected using appropriate and applicable ASTM International standard practices.
1.3 This test method includes a procedure for on-site extraction (dissolution) of beryllium in dilute ammonium bifluoride, followed by analysis of aliquots of the extract solution using a beryllium-specific fluorescent dye.
1.4 No detailed operating instructions are provided because of differences among various makes and models of suitable fluorometric instruments. Instead, the analyst shall follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the particular instrument. This test method does not address comparative accuracy of different devices or the precision between instruments of the same make and model.
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.6 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D 6026.
1.6.1 The procedures used to specify how data are collected/recorded, or calculated, in this standard are regarded as the industry standard. In addition, they are representative of the significant digits that generally should be retained. The procedures used do not consider material variation, purpose for obtaining the data, special purpose studies, or any considerations for the user’s objectives; and it is common practice to increase or reduce significant digits of reported data to be commensurate with these considerations. It is beyond the scope of this standard to consider significant digits used in analytical methods for engineering design.
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice addresses underground coal mining extent geospatial data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). This practice is significant to the coal mining community because it provides for uniformity of geospatial data pertaining to underground coal mine extents for mines located throughout the United States. These standards will help ensure uniformity of data contributed by each RA and assist organizations in future efforts to create and utilize geospatial data relative to underground coal mining extents in the United States. The first standard developed is Practice D 7384, Practice for Minimum Geospatial Data for a Coal Surface Mining Permit Boundary.
Underground mine geospatial data shall be obtained from State and Federal regulatory authorities for underground mining extents. The coal mining community encompasses all entities directly and indirectly affected by coal mining activities, including industry, environmental groups and the government at all levels within the United States. Use of this standard will help create consistent maps and increase awareness of underground mining extents throughout the United States. This standard creates well organized and easily accessible underground coal mining extents data, and it will lead to better communication between the RAs and federal offices, the public, industry and environmental groups.
As used in this practice, the geospatial data represents an area where coal removal occurred within a defined UCMO. An underground mine extent is defined as a polygon or polygons. A lack of data from any RA will create a gap in the national underground mining extents geospatial data set. This national coal mining data set consists of underground coal mining extents data from each RA, which will show the locations of underground coal mines throughout the United States. Currently, each coal producing state organizes their data in a different method, and their own naming conventions and term...
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1.1 This practice covers the minimum elements for the accurate location and description of data for defining underground coal mining extents.
1.1.1 This practice addresses coal mining geospatial data relative to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). This geospatial data shall be obtained from each state, tribal, or federal (or combinations thereof) coal mining Regulatory Authority (RA) authorized under SMCRA to regulate the surface effects of underground coal mining operations (UCMO).
1.1.2 As used in this practice, underground coal mining extents represent an area where coal removal has occurred within a defined UCMO.
1.2 This practice applies to pre-SMCRA and post-SMCRA underground coal mining extents.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.4 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.