ASTM D6429-99(2011)e1
(Guide)Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods (Withdrawn 2020)
Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods (Withdrawn 2020)
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysical methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating system used in Table 1 is based upon the ability of each method to produce results under average field conditions when compared to other methods applied to the same application. An “A” rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple methods that can be applied with equal success. There may also be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a lower cost. The final selection must be made considering site specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is critical to have an experienced professional make the final decision as to the method(s) selected.
Benson (2) provides one of the earlier guides to the application of geophysics to environmental problems.
Ward (3) is a three-volume compendium that deals with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and environmental problems.
Olhoeft (4) provides an expert system for helping select geophysical methods to be used at hazardous waste sites.
EPA (5) provides an excellent literature review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated sites.
An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:
A primary factor affecting the accuracy of geotechnical or environmental site characterization efforts is the number of sample points or borings. Insufficient spatial sampling to adequately characterize the conditions at a site can result if the number of samples is too small. Interpolation between these sample points may be difficult and may lead to an inaccurate site characterization. Benson (2) provides an assessment of the probability of target detection using only borings.
Surface and borehole geophysical measurements generally can be made relatively quickly, are minimally intrusive, and enable interpolation between known points of control. Continuous data acquisition can be obtained ...
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, and environmental investigations (hereafter referred to as site characterization), as well as forensic and archaeological applications. This guide does not describe the specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Individual guides are being developed for each surface geophysical method.
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and pore fluids, as well as buried objects.
1.3 The geophysical methods presented in this guide are regularly used and have been proven effective for hydrologic, geologic, geotechnical, and hazardous waste site assessments.
1.4 This guide provides an overview of applications for which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not address the details of the theory underlying specific methods, field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of this guide be familiar with the references cited (1-20) and with Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, and D6285, as well as Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Method G57.
1.5 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references cited in this guide, should be consulted.
1.6 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon many factors. One of the most important factors is the competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the method's theory, field procedures, and interpretation along with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to successfully complete a survey. Personnel not having specialized training or experience should be cautious about u...
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NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
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Designation: D6429 − 99 (Reapproved 2011)
Standard Guide for
Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D6429; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
ε NOTE—Editorially revised Section 3 in July 2011.
1. Scope with an understanding of the site geology, is necessary to
successfully complete a survey. Personnel not having special-
1.1 This guide covers the selection of surface geophysical
ized training or experience should be cautious about using
methods, as commonly applied to geologic, geotechnical,
geophysical methods and should solicit assistance from quali-
hydrologic, and environmental investigations (hereafter re-
fied practitioners.
ferred to as site characterization), as well as forensic and
archaeological applications. This guide does not describe the 1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
specific procedures for conducting geophysical surveys. Indi- guide. The values given in parentheses are for information
vidualguidesarebeingdevelopedforeachsurfacegeophysical only.
method.
1.8 This guide offers an organized collection of information
or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
1.2 Surface geophysical methods yield direct and indirect
course of action. This document cannot replace education or
measurements of the physical properties of soil and rock and
experienceandshouldbeusedinconjunctionwithprofessional
pore fluids, as well as buried objects.
judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
1.3 The geophysical methods presented in this guide are
circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to repre-
regularly used and have been proven effective for hydrologic,
sent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of
geologic, geotechnical, and hazardous waste site assessments.
a given professional service must be judged, nor should this
1.4 This guide provides an overview of applications for
document be applied without consideration of a project’s many
which surface geophysical methods are appropriate. It does not
unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this
address the details of the theory underlying specific methods,
document means only that the document has been approved
field procedures, or interpretation of the data. Numerous
through the ASTM consensus process.
references are included for that purpose and are considered an
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the
essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
thisguidebefamiliarwiththereferencescited (1-20) andwith
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
Guides D420, D5730, D5753, D5777, and D6285, as well as
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
Practices D5088, D5608, D6235, and Test Method G57.
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.5 To obtain detailed information on specific geophysical
2. Referenced Documents
methods, ASTM standards, other publications, and references
2.1 ASTM Standards:
cited in this guide, should be consulted.
D420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering Design
1.6 The success of a geophysical survey is dependent upon
and Construction Purposes (Withdrawn 2011)
many factors. One of the most important factors is the
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
competence of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying
Fluids
out the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of
D4428/D4428M Test Methods for Crosshole Seismic Test-
the method’s theory, field procedures, and interpretation along
ing
D5088 Practice for Decontamination of Field Equipment
Used at Waste Sites
This guide is under the jurisdiction ofASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.01 on Surface and Subsurface
Characterization. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved July 1, 2011. Published September 2011. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 2006 as D6429 – 99 (2006). Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
DOI: 10.1520/D6429-99R11E01. the ASTM website.
The boldface numbers given in parentheses refer to a list of references at the The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
end of this standard. www.astm.org.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
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D6429 − 99 (2011)
D5608 Practices for Decontamination of Field Equipment 4.2 The selection of preferred geophysical methods for a
Used at Low Level Radioactive Waste Sites numberofcommonapplicationsissummarizedinTable1.The
D5730 Guide for Site Characterization for Environmental
table is followed by brief descriptions of each application.
Purposes With Emphasis on Soil, Rock, the Vadose Zone
4 4.3 A brief description of each geophysical method along
and Groundwater (Withdrawn 2013)
with some of the field considerations and limitations also are
D5753 Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole Geo-
provided.
physical Logging
D5777 Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for
4.4 It is recommended that personnel consult appropriate
Subsurface Investigation
references on each of the methods, applications, and their
D6235 Practice for Expedited Site Characterization of Va-
interpretations. All geophysical measurements should be car-
dose Zone and Groundwater Contamination at Hazardous
ried out by knowledgeable professionals who have experience
Waste Contaminated Sites
and training in theory and application of the method, and the
D6285 Guide for Locating Abandoned Wells
interpretation of the data resulting from the use of the specific
G57 Test Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity
method.
Using the Wenner Four-Electrode Method
5. Significance and Use
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions:
5.1 This guide applies to commonly used surface geophysi-
3.1.1 Definitions shall be in accordance with the terms and cal methods for those applications listed in Table 1. The rating
symbols given in Terminology D653.
systemusedinTable1isbasedupontheabilityofeachmethod
to produce results under average field conditions when com-
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
paredtoothermethodsappliedtothesameapplication.An“A”
3.2.1 See Ref (1) for specific geophysical terms and defini-
rating implies a preferred method and a “B” rating implies an
tions.
alternate method. There may be a single method or multiple
4. Summary of Guide
methodsthatcanbeappliedwithequalsuccess.Theremayalso
be a method or methods that will be successful technically at a
4.1 This guide applies to surface geophysical techniques
that are commonly used in site characterization, as well as lower cost. The final selection must be made considering site
specific conditions and project objectives; therefore, it is
forensic and archaeological applications.
A,B
TABLE 1 Selection of Geophysical Methods for Common Applications
Geophysical Methods
Seismic Electrical Electromagnetic
Ground
DC Frequency Time Pipe/Cable Metal
Applications
Refraction Reflection SP Penetrating Magnetics Gravity
Resistivity Domain Domain VLF (6.7) Locator Detectors
(6.1) (6.2) (6.4) Radar (6.11) (6.12)
(6.3) (6.5) (6.6) (6.8) (6.9)
(6.10)
Natural Geologic and Hydrologic
Conditions
Soil/unconsolidated layers A B A B A B A
Rock layers B A B B B
Depth to bedrock A A B B B B A B
Depth to water table A A B B B B A
Fractures and fault zones B B B A B A B B B
Voids and sinkholes B B B B B A A
Soil and rock properties A A B
Dam and lagoon leakage B A B B
Inorganic Contaminants
Landfill leachate A A A B B
Saltwater intrusion A A A B B
Soil salinity A A
Organic Contaminants
Light, nonaqueous phase liquids B B B B
C
Dissolved phase
Dense, nonaqueous phase
C
liquids
Manmade Buried Objects
Utilities BABA
Drums and USTs A A A A A
UXO ABA
Abandoned wells B B B A
Landfill and trench boundaries B B A B A
Forensics B A B B A B
Archaeological features B B B A A A B
A
“A” implies primary choice of method.
B
“B” implies secondary choice or alternate method.
C
Also see natural geologic and hydrologic conditions to characterize contaminant pathways.
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D6429 − 99 (2011)
critical to have an experienced professional make the final a cross-section produced from the geophysical data may
decision as to the method(s) selected. resemble a geological cross-section, although the two are not
necessarily identical.
5.1.1 Benson (2) provides one of the earlier guides to the
application of geophysics to environmental problems.
5.4 Geophysical methods commonly are used for the fol-
5.1.2 Ward (3) is a three-volume compendium that deals
lowing reasons:
with geophysical methods applied to geotechnical and envi-
5.4.1 Mapping natural hydrogeologic conditions;
ronmental problems.
5.4.2 Detecting and mapping contaminant plumes; and,
5.1.3 Olhoeft (4) provides an expert system for helping
5.4.3 Locating and mapping buried objects.
selectgeophysicalmethodstobeusedathazardouswastesites.
5.1.4 EPA (5) provides an excellent literature review of the
5.5 Geophysical methods should be used in the following
theory and use of geophysical methods for use at contaminated instances:
sites.
5.5.1 Surface geophysical methods can and should be used
early in a site characterization program to aid in identifying
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements:
backgroundconditions,aswellasanomalousconditionssothat
5.2.1 A primary factor affecting the accuracy of geotechni-
boring and sampling points can be located to be representative
cal or environmental site characterization efforts is the number
of site conditions and to investigate anomalies. Geophysical
of sample points or borings. Insufficient spatial sampling to
methods also can be used later in the site characterization
adequately characterize the conditions at a site can result if the
program after an initial study is completed to confirm and
number of samples is too small. Interpolation between these
improve the site characterization findings and provide fill-in
sample points may be difficult and may lead to an inaccurate
data between other measurements.
site characterization. Benson (2) provides an assessment of the
5.5.2 The level of success of a geophysical survey is
probability of target detection using only borings.
improved if the survey objectives are well defined. In some
5.2.2 Surface and borehole geophysical measurements gen-
cases, the objective may be refined as the survey uncovers new
erally can be made relatively quickly, are minimally intrusive,
or unknown data about the site conditions. The flexibility to
and enable interpolation between known points of control.
changeoraddtothetechnicalapproachshouldbebuiltintothe
Continuous data acquisition can be obtained with certain
program to account for changes in interpretation of site
geophysical methods at speeds up to several km/h. In some
conditions as a site investigation progresses.
cases, total site coverage is economically possible. Because of
5.6 Profiling and Sounding Measurements:
the greater sample density, the use of geophysical methods can
5.6.1 Profiling by stations or by continuous measurements
be used to define background (ambient) conditions and detect
provides a means of assessing lateral changes in subsurface
anomalous conditions resulting in a more accurate site charac-
conditions.
terization than using borings alone.
5.6.2 Soundings provide a means of assessing depth and
5.2.3 Geophysical measurements provide a means of map-
thickness of geologic layers or other targets. Most surface
ping lateral and vertical variations of one or more physical
geophysical sounding measurements can resolve three and
properties or monitoring temporal changes in conditions, or
possibly four layers.
both.
5.7 Ease of Use and Interpretation of Data:
5.3 A contrast must be present for geophysical measure-
5.7.1 The theory of applied geophysics is quantitative,
ments to be successful.
however, in application, geophysical methods often yield
5.3.1 Geophysical methods measure the physical, electrical,
interpretations that are qualitative.
or chemical properties of soil, rock, and pore fluids. To detect
5.7.2 Some geophysical methods provide data from which a
an anomaly, a soil to rock contact, the presence of inorganic
preliminary interpretation can be made in the field, for
contaminants, or a buried drum, there must be a contrast in the
example, ground penetrating radar (GPR), frequency domain
property being measured, for example, the target to be detected
electromagnetic profiling, direct current (DC) resistivity
or geologic feature to be defined must have properties signifi-
profiling, magnetic profiling, and metal detector profiling. A
cantly different from “background” conditions.
map of GPR anomalies or a contour map of the EM
5.3.2 For example, the interface between fresh water and (electromagnetic), resistivity, magnetic or metal detector data
saltwater in an aquifer can be detected by the differences in
often can be created in the field.
electricalpropertiesoftheporefluids.Thecontactbetweensoil
5.7.3 Some methods, (for example, time domain electro-
and unweathered bedrock can be detected by the differences in
magnetics and DC resistivity soundings, seismic refraction,
acoustic velocity of the materials. In some cases, the differ-
seismic reflection, and gravity), require that the data be
ences in measured physical properties may be too small for
processed before any quantitative interpretation can be done.
anomaly detection by geophysical methods.
5.7.4 Any preliminary interpretation of field data should be
5.3.3 Because physical properties of soil and rock vary treated with caution. Such preliminary analysis should be
widely, some by many orders of magnitude, one or more of
confirmed by correlation with other information from known
these properties usually will correspond to a geologic discon- pointsofcontrol,suchasboringsoroutcrops.Suchpreliminary
tinuity; therefore, boundaries determined by the geophysical
analysis is subject to change after data processing and is
methods will usually coincide with geological boundaries, and performed mostly as a means of quality control (QC).
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D6429 − 99 (2011)
5.7.5
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