ASTM F1788-97
(Guide)Standard Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and Operational Considerations
Standard Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and Operational Considerations
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers the use of in-situ burning to assist in the control of oil spills on water. This guide is not applicable to in-situ burning of oil on land.
1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information that will enable spill responders to decide if burning will be used as part of the oil spill cleanup response.
1.3 This is the general guide only. It is assumed that conditions at the spill site have been assessed and that these conditions are suitable for the burning of oil. It is also assumed that permission to burn the oil has been obtained. Variations in the behavior of different oil types are not dealt with and may change some of the parameters noted in this guide.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
General Information
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Standards Content (Sample)
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Designation: F 1788 – 97
Standard Guide for
In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and
Operational Considerations
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1788; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 2.1.6 in-situ burning—use of burning directly on the water
surface.
1.1 This guide covers the use of in-situ burning to assist in
2.1.6.1 Discussion—In-situ burning does not include incin-
the control of oil spills on water. This guide is not applicable to
eration techniques, whereby oil or oiled debris are placed into
in-situ burning of oil on land.
an incinerator.
1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information that
2.1.7 residue—the material, excluding airborne emissions,
will enable spill responders to decide if burning will be used as
remaining after the oil stops burning.
part of the oil spill cleanup response.
1.3 This is a general guide only. It is assumed that condi-
3. Significance and Use
tions at the spill site have been assessed and that these
3.1 This guide is primarily intended to aid decision-makers
conditions are suitable for the burning of oil. It is also assumed
and spill-responders in contingency planning, spill response,
that permission to burn the oil has been obtained. Variations in
and training.
the behavior of different oil types are not dealt with and may
3.2 This guide is not specific to either site or type of oil.
change some of the parameters noted in this guide.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the
4. Background
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
4.1 Overview of Oil Burning:
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
4.1.1 In-situ burning is one of several oil-spill countermea-
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
sures available. Other countermeasures could include mechani-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
cal recovery, use of oil-spill dispersants, and leaving the oil to
natural processes.
2. Terminology
4.1.2 In-situ burning is combustion at the spill site without
2.1 Definitions:
removing the oil from the water. Containment techniques may
2.1.1 burn effıciency—burn efficiency is the percentage of
be used, however, to increase the thickness of the oil. The
the oil removed from the water by the burning.
thickness of the oil slick is an important factor in the use of
2.1.1.1 Discussion—Burn efficiency is the amount (volume)
in-situ burning.
of oil before burning; less the volume remaining as a residue,
4.1.3 In-situ burning does not include incineration tech-
divided by the initial volume of the oil.
niques whereby oil or oiled debris are placed into an incinera-
2.1.2 burn rate—the rate at which oil is burned in a given
tor.
area.
4.2 Major Advantages and Disadvantages of In-situ Burn-
2.1.2.1 Discussion—Typically, the area is a pool and burn
ing:
rate is the regression rate of the burning liquid, or may be
4.2.1 Advantages of in-situ burning include the following:
described as a volumetric rate.
4.2.1.1 Rapid removal of oil from the water surface,
2.1.3 contact probability—the probability that oil will be
4.2.1.2 Requirement for less equipment and labor than
contacted by the flame during burning.
many other techniques,
2.1.4 controlled burning—burning when the combustion
4.2.1.3 Significant reduction in the amount of material
can be started and stopped by human intervention.
requiring disposal,
2.1.5 fire-resistant booms—devices that float on water to
4.2.1.4 Significant removal of volatile emission compo-
restrict the spreading and movement of oil slicks and con-
nents, and
structed to withstand the high temperatures and heat fluxes of
4.2.1.5 May be the only solution possible, such as in
in-situ burning.
oil-in-ice situations.
4.2.2 Disadvantages of in-situ burning include the follow-
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous
ing:
Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
4.2.2.1 Creation of a smoke plume,
F20.15 on In-Situ Burning.
Current edition approved May 10, 1997. Published July 1997. 4.2.2.2 Residues of the burn must be dealt with,
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NOTICE: This standard has either been superceded and replaced by a new version or discontinued.
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F 1788
4.2.2.3 Time in which to ignite the oil may be limited, for controlling the fire or the burn rate might include releasing
4.2.2.4 Oil must be a minimum thickness to burn, which one side of the oil containment boom or slowing down to
may require containment, and reduce the encounter rate.
4.2.2.5 The fire may spread to other combustible materials.
6.3 Oil Thickness—Most oils can be ignited on a water
surface if they are a minimum of 2 to 3 mm thick. Once ignited,
5. Environmental Considerations for Deciding to Use
the oils will burn down to a thickness of about 1 mm. Physical
In-Situ Burning
containment, such as with oil-spill containment booms, is
5.1 Air Quality:
usually necessary to achieve the minimum thicknesses re-
5.1.1 Several studies have been done of the air emissions
quired. Specific information on this is provided in the appen-
resulting from in-situ burning. It has been found that the smoke
dix.
plume consists largely of carbon and that toxic compounds are
6.4 Oil Type and Condition—Highly weathered oils will
not created. The high temperatures achieved during in-situ
burn, but will require sustained heat during ignition. Oil that is
burning result in efficient removal of most components of the
emulsified with water may not burn. Not enough data are
oil. The thick, black smoke can be of concern to nearby human
available to determine water-content levels that limit ignition.
populations or ecologically sensitive areas. Since most soot
Indications are, however, that stable emulsions which typically
precipitation occurs near the fire, this is the main area of
contain about 70 % water cannot be ignited and that oils
concern. The smoke plume is, however, generally an aesthetic
containing less than about 25 % water will burn. Treatment
concern. In-situ burning should be avoided within 1 km
with chemicals to remove water before burning can permit
upwind of either an ecologically sensitive or a heavily popu-
ignition.
lated area, depending on meteorological conditions. No emis-
6.5 Wind and Sea Conditions—Strong winds may extin-
sions greater than one fourth of the 1994 human health
guish the fire. In-situ burning can be done on the sea with
exposure limits have been detected at ground level further than
winds less than about 40 km/h (about 20 knots). High sea states
1 km from an oil fire. The values of the human health exposure
are not conducive to containment by booms. Wave heights of 1
limits vary with jurisdiction, and, thus, the appropriate docu-
m or more may result in splash-over of the oil.
ments should be consulted. The environmental and economic
6.6 Burn Effıciency—Burn efficiency, which is the percent-
trade-offs of burning the oil, as opposed to contamination of
age of oil removed by burning, has been measured as high as
the shoreline, must be considered.
99 % for contained oil. Burn efficiency is largely a function of
5.1.2 Burning can be safely conducted near populated areas
oil thickness and flame-contact probability. Contact probability
if there is sufficient air turbulence for mixing, and in the
is the probability that oil will be contacted by the flame during
absence of a low-level atmospheric inversion.
burning. Inhomogeneous oil distribution on the surface can
5.2 Water Quality—Measurements show that burning does
result in an incomplete burn. This can result as the flame may
not accelerate the release of oil components or combustion
be extinguished over a patch that is not thick enough to burn,
by-products to the water column. Highly efficient burns of
while adjacent patches that are thick enough will subsequently
heavy oils may form a dense residue that sinks.
not be burned. Contact is usually random and is influenced by
5.3 Wildlife Concerns—Although no specific biological
wind speed and direction and can be controlled by human
concerns related to the use of in-situ combustion have been
intervention in some cases.
identified to date, benthic resources may be affected by sunken
6.7 Burn Rate—Oil burns at the rate of about 3 mm/min,
oil burn residue.
which means that the surface of the oil slick regresses
downwards at the rate of 3 mm/min. This translates to a rate of
6. Operational Considerations for In-situ Burning
2 2
about 5000 L/m /day (or 100 gal/ft /day). Burn rate is rela-
6.1 Safety Considerations—The safety of the proposed
tively independent of physical conditions and oil type. Using
operation shall be the primary consideration. Secondly, the
these values, it is possible to calculate the rate of burning in
burning operation shall not result in unintentional flashback to
booms and in other burn operations.
the source of the oil, for example, the tanker or the production
6.8 Containment—Oil slicks must be a minimum of 2 to 3
platform. The third consideration is the spread of the fire to
mm thick to be ignited. As oil naturally spreads quickly to
other combustible material in the area, including trees, docks,
much thinner slicks than this under normal circumstances,
and buildings. Flashback and fire spread can often be prevented
physical containment is generally necessary for burning. Fire-
by using containment booms to tow away the oil to be burned.
resistant booms are commercially available for this purpose.
A fourth consideration is the safety of the ignition operation,
While these booms can be used in a variety of configurations,
which is often done from helicopters, and the safety of the
they are best used in a catenary mode and towed at speeds less
boom tow operation must be ensured.
than 0.35 m/s (0.7 knots). At speeds greater than this, oil is lost
6.2 Safety Monitoring and Control Requirements—The op-
under the boom by entrainment. Slicks can sometimes be
eration must be monitored to meet safety requirements. Burn-
naturally contained by ice or against shorelines.
ing shall be monitored to ensure that fire may not spread to
6.9 Ignition—Slicks can be ignited with a variety of de-
adjacent combustible material. Situation-specific contingency
vices. Enough heat must be supplied for a sufficient length of
methods of extinguishing, such as boats with fire monitors,
time. Weathered oils generally require a longer heating time to
shall be available. In towed-boom operations, it has been
ignite.
proposed that the fire may be extinguished by increasing the
tow speed so that the oil is entrained in the water. Other options 6.10 Residue Cleanup:
NOTICE: This standard has either been superceded and replaced by a new version or discontinued.
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F 1788
6.10.1 Residue is the material remaining after the oil stops potential to quickly remove large amounts of oil. The air
burning. Residue is similar to a highly weathered oil, depend- emissions of in-situ burning are below health and environmen-
ing on the burn conditions. It is viscous and often highly
tal concern levels at nominal distances from the combustion
adhesive. Highly efficient burns result in heavier and denser
source.
residue. These residues may actually be more dense than sea
water.
8. Keywords
6.10.2 Floating residue can be removed manually with
8.1 fire-resistant booms; in-situ burning; oil-spill burning;
sorbents, nets, or similar equipment.
oil-spill containment; oil-spill disposal
7. Summary
7.1 In-situ burning is a viable countermeasure that has the
APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. INTRODUCTION TO THE IN-SITU BURNING OF OIL SPILLS
INTRODUCTION
In-situ burning has been used as an oil-spill countermeasure around the world (1,2). Recently,
extensive research has been conducted on the many facets of burning oil (3,4,5). The emissions from
and basic principles of oil-spill burning are now relatively well-understood.
X1.1 Basic Principles of Burning Oil of the Exxon Valdez oil, some patches of emulsion were
present (probably less than 20 %) and this did not affect either
X1.1.1 Oil slicks can be ignited if they are at least 2 to 3 mm
the ignitability or the efficiency (11). It is suspected that fire
thick and will continue to burn down to slicks of about 1 to 2
2 breaks down the water-in-oil emulsion, and thus water content
mm thick (6) . These thicknesses are required because of heat
may not be a problem if the fire can be started. There is
transfer. Sufficient heat is required to vaporize material for
inconclusive evidence at this time on the water content at
continued combustion. In a thin slick, most of the heat is lost
which emulsions can still be ignited. One test suggested that a
to the water, vaporization is not sustained, and combustion
heavier crude would not burn with about 10 % water (10),
ceases.
another oil burned with as much as 50 % (12), and still another
X1.1.2 Containment is usually required to concentrate oil
burned with about 70 % water (13). One study indicated that
slicks so that they are thick enough to ignite and burn (7).
emulsions may burn if a sufficient area is ignited (13). Further
Fire-resistant containment booms can be used to keep fire from
studies indicate that stable emulsions will not burn but oil
spreading back to the spill source, such as an oil tanker (8).
containing less than 25 % water can be ignited. Emulsions may
Burning in situ without the benefit of containment booms can
not be a problem because chemical de-emulsifiers could be
be undertaken only if the oil is thick enough (2 to 3 mm) to
used to break enough of the emulsion to allow the fire to start.
ignite. For most crude oil spills, this only occurs for a few
X1.1.5 Most, if not all, oils will burn on water if slicks are
hours after the spill event unless the oil is confined behind a
thick enough. Except for light-refined products, different types
barrier. Oil on the open sea spreads rapidly to equilibrium
of oils have not shown significant differences in burning
thicknesses. For light crude oils, this is about 0.01 to 0.1 mm,
behavior. Weathered oil requires a longer ignition time and
for heavy crudes and heavy oils, this is about 0.05 to about 0.5
somewhat higher ignition temperature (12).
mm.
X1.1.3
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