ASTM F1788-97(2003)
(Guide)Standard Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and Operational Considerations
Standard Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and Operational Considerations
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This guide is primarily intended to aid decision-makers and spill-responders in contingency planning, spill response, and training.
This guide is not specific to either site or type of oil.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers the use of in-situ burning to assist in the control of oil spills on water. This guide is not applicable to in-situ burning of oil on land.
1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information that will enable spill responders to decide if burning will be used as part of the oil spill cleanup response.
1.3 This is the general guide only. It is assumed that conditions at the spill site have been assessed and that these conditions are suitable for the burning of oil. It is also assumed that permission to burn the oil has been obtained. Variations in the behavior of different oil types are not dealt with and may change some of the parameters noted in this guide.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
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Designation:F1788–97 (Reapproved 2003)
Standard Guide for
In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental and
Operational Considerations
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1788; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 2.1.5 fire-resistant booms—devices that float on water to
restrict the spreading and movement of oil slicks and con-
1.1 This guide covers the use of in-situ burning to assist in
structed to withstand the high temperatures and heat fluxes of
the control of oil spills on water.This guide is not applicable to
in-situ burning.
in-situ burning of oil on land.
2.1.6 in-situ burning—use of burning directly on the water
1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information that
surface.
will enable spill responders to decide if burning will be used as
2.1.6.1 Discussion—In-situ burning does not include incin-
part of the oil spill cleanup response.
eration techniques, whereby oil or oiled debris are placed into
1.3 This is a general guide only. It is assumed that condi-
an incinerator.
tions at the spill site have been assessed and that these
2.1.7 residue—the material, excluding airborne emissions,
conditions are suitable for the burning of oil. It is also assumed
remaining after the oil stops burning.
that permission to burn the oil has been obtained. Variations in
the behavior of different oil types are not dealt with and may
3. Significance and Use
change some of the parameters noted in this guide.
3.1 This guide is primarily intended to aid decision-makers
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the
and spill-responders in contingency planning, spill response,
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
and training.
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
3.2 This guide is not specific to either site or type of oil.
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
4. Background
4.1 Overview of Oil Burning:
2. Terminology
4.1.1 In-situ burning is one of several oil-spill countermea-
2.1 Definitions:
suresavailable.Othercountermeasurescouldincludemechani-
2.1.1 burn effıciency—burn efficiency is the percentage of
cal recovery, use of oil-spill dispersants, and leaving the oil to
the oil removed from the water by the burning.
natural processes.
2.1.1.1 Discussion—Burnefficiencyistheamount(volume)
4.1.2 In-situ burning is combustion at the spill site without
of oil before burning; less the volume remaining as a residue,
removing the oil from the water. Containment techniques may
divided by the initial volume of the oil.
be used, however, to increase the thickness of the oil. The
2.1.2 burn rate—the rate at which oil is burned in a given
thickness of the oil slick is an important factor in the use of
area.
in-situ burning.
2.1.2.1 Discussion—Typically, the area is a pool and burn
4.1.3 In-situ burning does not include incineration tech-
rate is the regression rate of the burning liquid, or may be
niques whereby oil or oiled debris are placed into an incinera-
described as a volumetric rate.
tor.
2.1.3 contact probability—the probability that oil will be
4.2 Major Advantages and Disadvantages of In-situ Burn-
contacted by the flame during burning.
ing:
2.1.4 controlled burning—burning when the combustion
4.2.1 Advantages of in-situ burning include the following:
can be started and stopped by human intervention.
4.2.1.1 Rapid removal of oil from the water surface,
4.2.1.2 Requirement for less equipment and labor than
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous
many other techniques,
Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
4.2.1.3 Significant reduction in the amount of material
F20.15 on In-Situ Burning.
requiring disposal,
Current edition approved May 10, 1997. Published July 1997.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
F1788–97 (2003)
4.2.1.4 Significant removal of volatile emission compo- 6.2 Safety Monitoring and Control Requirements—The op-
nents, and eration must be monitored to meet safety requirements. Burn-
4.2.1.5 May be the only solution possible, such as in ing shall be monitored to ensure that fire may not spread to
oil-in-ice situations. adjacent combustible material. Situation-specific contingency
4.2.2 Disadvantages of in-situ burning include the follow- methods of extinguishing, such as boats with fire monitors,
ing: shall be available. In towed-boom operations, it has been
4.2.2.1 Creation of a smoke plume, proposed that the fire may be extinguished by increasing the
4.2.2.2 Residues of the burn must be dealt with, towspeedsothattheoilisentrainedinthewater.Otheroptions
4.2.2.3 Time in which to ignite the oil may be limited, for controlling the fire or the burn rate might include releasing
4.2.2.4 Oil must be a minimum thickness to burn, which one side of the oil containment boom or slowing down to
may require containment, and reduce the encounter rate.
4.2.2.5 The fire may spread to other combustible materials.
6.3 Oil Thickness—Most oils can be ignited on a water
surfaceiftheyareaminimumof2to3mmthick.Onceignited,
5. Environmental Considerations for Deciding to Use
the oils will burn down to a thickness of about 1 mm. Physical
In-Situ Burning
containment, such as with oil-spill containment booms, is
5.1 Air Quality:
usually necessary to achieve the minimum thicknesses re-
5.1.1 Several studies have been done of the air emissions
quired. Specific information on this is provided in the appen-
resultingfromin-situburning.Ithasbeenfoundthatthesmoke
dix.
plume consists largely of carbon and that toxic compounds are
6.4 Oil Type and Condition—Highly weathered oils will
not created. The high temperatures achieved during in-situ
burn, but will require sustained heat during ignition. Oil that is
burning result in efficient removal of most components of the
emulsified with water may not burn. Not enough data are
oil.The thick, black smoke can be of concern to nearby human
available to determine water-content levels that limit ignition.
populations or ecologically sensitive areas. Since most soot
Indications are, however, that stable emulsions which typically
precipitation occurs near the fire, this is the main area of
contain about 70 % water cannot be ignited and that oils
concern. The smoke plume is, however, generally an aesthetic
containing less than about 25 % water will burn. Treatment
concern. In-situ burning should be avoided within 1 km
with chemicals to remove water before burning can permit
upwind of either an ecologically sensitive or a heavily popu-
ignition.
lated area, depending on meteorological conditions. No emis-
6.5 Wind and Sea Conditions—Strong winds may extin-
sions greater than one fourth of the 1994 human health
guish the fire. In-situ burning can be done on the sea with
exposure limits have been detected at ground level further than
windslessthanabout40km/h(about20knots).Highseastates
1 km from an oil fire.The values of the human health exposure
are not conducive to containment by booms.Wave heights of 1
limits vary with jurisdiction, and, thus, the appropriate docu-
m or more may result in splash-over of the oil.
ments should be consulted. The environmental and economic
6.6 Burn Effıciency—Burn efficiency, which is the percent-
trade-offs of burning the oil, as opposed to contamination of
age of oil removed by burning, has been measured as high as
the shoreline, must be considered.
99 % for contained oil. Burn efficiency is largely a function of
5.1.2 Burning can be safely conducted near populated areas
oil thickness and flame-contact probability. Contact probability
if there is sufficient air turbulence for mixing, and in the
is the probability that oil will be contacted by the flame during
absence of a low-level atmospheric inversion.
burning. Inhomogeneous oil distribution on the surface can
5.2 Water Quality—Measurements show that burning does
result in an incomplete burn. This can result as the flame may
not accelerate the release of oil components or combustion
be extinguished over a patch that is not thick enough to burn,
by-products to the water column. Highly efficient burns of
while adjacent patches that are thick enough will subsequently
heavy oils may form a dense residue that sinks.
not be burned. Contact is usually random and is influenced by
5.3 Wildlife Concerns—Although no specific biological
wind speed and direction and can be controlled by human
concerns related to the use of in-situ combustion have been
intervention in some cases.
identified to date, benthic resources may be affected by sunken
6.7 Burn Rate—Oil burns at the rate of about 3 mm/min,
oil burn residue.
which means that the surface of the oil slick regresses
6. Operational Considerations for In-situ Burning
downwards at the rate of 3 mm/min. This translates to a rate of
2 2
about 5000 L/m /day (or 100 gal/ft /day). Burn rate is rela-
6.1 Safety Considerations—The safety of the proposed
tively independent of physical conditions and oil type. Using
operation shall be the primary consideration. Secondly, the
these values, it is possible to calculate the rate of burning in
burning operation shall not result in unintentional flashback to
booms and in other burn operations.
the source of the oil, for example, the tanker or the production
platform. The third consideration is the spread of the fire to 6.8 Containment—Oil slicks must be a minimum of 2 to 3
other combustible material in the area, including trees, docks, mm thick to be ignited. As oil naturally spreads quickly to
andbuildings.Flashbackandfirespreadcanoftenbeprevented much thinner slicks than this under normal circumstances,
by using containment booms to tow away the oil to be burned. physical containment is generally necessary for burning. Fire-
A fourth consideration is the safety of the ignition operation, resistant booms are commercially available for this purpose.
which is often done from helicopters, and the safety of the While these booms can be used in a variety of configurations,
boom tow operation must be ensured. they are best used in a catenary mode and towed at speeds less
F1788–97 (2003)
than 0.35 m/s (0.7 knots).At speeds greater than this, oil is lost 6.10.2 Floating residue can be removed manually with
under the boom by entrainment. Slicks can sometimes be sorbents, nets, or similar equipment.
naturally contained by ice or against shorelines.
6.9 Ignition—Slicks can be ignited with a variety of de- 7. Summary
vices. Enough heat must be supplied for a sufficient length of
7.1 In-situ burning is a viable countermeasure that has the
time. Weathered oils generally require a longer heating time to
potential to quickly remove large amounts of oil. The air
ignite.
emissions of in-situ burning are below health and environmen-
6.10 Residue Cleanup:
tal concern levels at nominal distances from the combustion
6.10.1 Residue is the material remaining after the oil stops
source.
burning. Residue is similar to a highly weathered oil, depend-
ing on the burn conditions. It is viscous and often highly
8. Keywords
adhesive. Highly efficient burns result in heavier and denser
residue. These residues may actually be more dense than sea 8.1 fire-resistant booms; in-situ burning; oil-spill burning;
water. oil-spill containment; oil-spill disposal
APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. INTRODUCTION TO THE IN-SITU BURNING OF OIL SPILLS
INTRODUCTION
In-situ burning has been used as an oil-spill countermeasure around the world (1,2). Recently,
extensive research has been conducted on the many facets of burning oil (3,4,5). The emissions from
and basic principles of oil-spill burning are now relatively well-understood.
have occasionally been contained by shorelines. Burning could
be applied in these instances, if the shoreline is remote and no
X1.1 Basic Principles of Burning Oil
combustible materials such as trees and docks are nearby.
X1.1.1 Oilslickscanbeignitediftheyareatleast2to3mm X1.1.4 It is uncertain whether oil that is completely emul-
sified with water can be ignited. Oil containing some emulsion
thick and will continue to burn down to slicks of about 1 to 2
mm thick (6) . These thicknesses are required because of heat can be ignited and burned (10). During the successful test burn
of the Exxon Valdez oil, some patches of emulsion were
transfer. Sufficient heat is required to vaporize material for
present (probably less than 20 %) and this did not affect either
continued combustion. In a thin slick, most of the heat is lost
the ignitability or the efficiency (11). It is suspected that fire
to the water, vaporization is not sustained, and combustion
breaks down the water-in-oil emulsion, and thus water content
ceases.
may not be a problem if the fire can be started. There is
X1.1.2 Containment is usually required to concentrate oil
inconclusive evidence at this time on the water content at
slicks so that they are thick enough to ignite and burn (7).
which emulsions can still be ignited. One test suggested that a
Fire-resistant containment booms can be used to keep fire from
heavier crude would not burn with about 10 % water (10),
spreading back to the spill source, such as an oil tanker (8).
another oil burned with as much as 50 % (12), and still another
Burning in situ without the benefit of containment booms can
burned with about 70 % water (13). One study indicated that
be undertaken only if the oil is thick enough (2 to 3 mm) to
emulsions may burn if a sufficient area is ignited (13). Further
ignite. For most crude oil spills, this only occurs for a few
studies indicate that stable emulsions will not burn but oil
hours after the spill event unless the oil is confined behind a
containing less than 25 % water can be ignited. Emulsions may
barrier. Oil on the open sea spreads rapidly to equilibrium
not be a problem because chemical de-emulsifiers could be
thicknesses. For light crude oils, this is about 0.01 to 0.1 mm,
for heavy crudes and heavy oils, this is about 0.05 to about 0.5 used to break enough of the emulsion to allow the fire to start.
mm.
X1.1.5 Most, if not all, oils will burn on water if slicks are
X1.1.3 Oil can be contained by natural barriers. For ex-
thick enough. Except for light-refined products, different types
ample, ice has been shown to serve as a natural boom. Several
of oils have not shown significant differences
...
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