SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
Indoor air - Part 15: Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
Indoor air - Part 15: Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
This part of ISO 16000 specifies the planning of nitrogen dioxide indoor pollution measurements. In the case of indoor air measurements, the careful planning of sampling and the entire measurement strategy are of particular significance since the result of the measurement may have far-reaching consequences, for example, with regard to ascertaining the need for remedial action or the success of such an action. An inappropriate measurement strategy may lead to misrepresentation of the true conditions or, worse, to erroneous results.
Innenraumluftverunreinigungen - Teil 15: Probenahmestrategie für Stickstoffdioxid (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
Dieser Teil der ISO 16000 gibt Hilfestellungen zur Planung von Messungen von Stichstoffdioxid als Innenraumluftschadstoff. Die sorgfältige Planung der Probenahme und der gesamten Messstrategie sind bei Innenraumluftuntersuchungen von besonderer Tragweite, da das Untersuchungsergebnis erhebliche Konsequenzen haben kann, so z. B. hinsichtlich eines Sanierungsbedarfs oder des Erfolgs einer Sanierung.
Eine ungeeignete Messstrategie kann zu einer erheblichen Gesamtunsicherheit oder sogar zu fehlerhaften Messergebnissen beitragen.
Air intérieur - Partie 15: Stratégie d'échantillonnage du dioxyde d'azote (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
L'ISO 16000-15:2008 spécifie la planification des mesurages de la pollution de l'air intérieur par du dioxyde d'azote. Dans le cas des mesurages relatifs à l'air intérieur, la planification minutieuse de l'échantillonnage et l'ensemble de la stratégie de mesurage sont d'une importance particulière car le résultat du mesurage peut avoir des conséquences de grande portée, par exemple en ce qui concerne la détermination de la nécessité de mesures correctives ou le succès de telles mesures.
Une stratégie de mesurage inadéquate peut conduire à une mauvaise interprétation des conditions réelles ou, pire, à des résultats erronés.
Notranji zrak - 15. del: Strategija vzorčenja za dušikov dioksid (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
General Information
Standards Content (Sample)
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
01-marec-2009
1RWUDQML]UDNGHO 6WUDWHJLMDY]RUþHQMD]DGXãLNRYGLRNVLG 12 ,62
Indoor air - Part 15: Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
Innenraumluftverunreinigungen - Teil 15: Probenahmestrategie für Stickstoffdioxid (NO2)
(ISO 16000-15:2008)
Air intérieur - Partie 15: Stratégie d'échantillonnage du dioxyde d'azote (NO2) (ISO
16000-15:2008)
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN ISO 16000-15:2008
ICS:
13.040.20 Kakovost okoljskega zraka Ambient atmospheres
SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009 en,fr,de
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
EUROPEAN STANDARD
EN ISO 16000-15
NORME EUROPÉENNE
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
July 2008
ICS 13.040.20
English Version
Indoor air - Part 15: Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008)
Air intérieur - Partie 15: Stratégie d'échantillonnage du Innenraumluftverunreinigungen - Teil 15:
dioxyde d'azote (NO2) (ISO 16000-15:2008) Probenahmestrategie für Stickstoffdioxid (NO2) (ISO
16000-15:2008)
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 11 July 2008.
CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European
Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national
standards may be obtained on application to the CEN Management Centre or to any CEN member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by translation
under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN Management Centre has the same status as the
official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
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EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
Management Centre: rue de Stassart, 36 B-1050 Brussels
© 2008 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN ISO 16000-15:2008: E
worldwide for CEN national Members.
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
EN ISO 16000-15:2008 (E)
Contents Page
Foreword.3
2
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
EN ISO 16000-15:2008 (E)
Foreword
This document (EN ISO 16000-15:2008) has been prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 146 "Air quality"
in collaboration with Technical Committee CEN/TC 264 “Air quality” the secretariat of which is held by DIN.
This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an identical
text or by endorsement, at the latest by January 2009, and conflicting national standards shall be withdrawn at
the latest by January 2009.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. CEN [and/or CENELEC] shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
According to the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organizations of the following
countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
Endorsement notice
The text of ISO 16000-15:2008 has been approved by CEN as a EN ISO 16000-15:2008 without any
modification.
3
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 16000-15
First edition
2008-07-15
Indoor air —
Part 15:
Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide
(NO )
2
Air intérieur —
Partie 15: Stratégie d'échantillonnage du dioxyde d'azote (NO )
2
Reference number
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
©
ISO 2008
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
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ii © ISO 2008 – All rights reserved
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
Contents Page
Foreword. iv
Introduction . vi
1 Scope .1
2 Normative references .1
3 Properties, origin and occurrence of nitrogen dioxide.1
4 Regulations .2
5 Measurement technique.3
5.1 General.3
5.2 Short-term measurements .3
5.3 Long-term measurements.3
5.4 Pre-testing .4
6 Measurement planning.4
6.1 General.4
6.2 Measurement objective and boundary conditions.4
6.3 Measurement time .6
6.4 Sampling period and measurement frequency .6
6.5 Measurement location.7
6.6 Measurement uncertainty and presentation of result.7
6.7 Quality assurance.7
Annex A (informative) Information on diffusive samplers .9
Annex B (informative) Examples of screening tests .10
Bibliography .11
© ISO 2008 – All rights reserved iii
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
(ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO
technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been
established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and
non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards
adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an
International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
ISO 16000-15 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 146, Air quality, Subcommittee SC 6, Indoor air.
ISO 16000 consists of the following parts, under the general title Indoor air :
⎯ Part 1: General aspects of sampling strategy
⎯ Part 2: Sampling strategy for formaldehyde
⎯ Part 3: Determination of formaldehyde and other carbonyl compounds — Active sampling method
⎯ Part 4: Determination of formaldehyde — Diffusive sampling method
⎯ Part 5: Sampling strategy for volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
⎯ Part 6: Determination of volatile organic compounds in indoor and test chamber air by active sampling on
®
Tenax TA sorbent, thermal desorption and gas chromatography using MS/FID
⎯ Part 7: Sampling strategy for determination of airborne asbestos fibre concentrations
⎯ Part 8: Determination of local mean ages of air in buildings for characterizing ventilation conditions
⎯ Part 9: Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds from building products and
furnishing — Emission test chamber method
⎯ Part 10: Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds from building products and
furnishing — Emission test cell method
⎯ Part 11: Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds from building products and
furnishing — Sampling, storage of samples and preparation of test specimens
⎯ Part 12: Sampling strategy for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
(PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
⎯ Part 13: Determination of total (gas and particle-phase) polychlorinated dioxin-like biphenyls (PCBs) and
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) — Collection on sorbent-backed filters
iv © ISO 2008 – All rights reserved
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
⎯ Part 14: Determination of total (gas and particle-phase) polychlorinated dioxin-like biphenyls (PCBs) and
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) — Extraction, clean-up and analysis by
high-resolution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
⎯ Part 15: Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide (NO )
2
⎯ Part 16: Detection and enumeration of moulds — Sampling by filtration
⎯ Part 17: Detection and enumeration of moulds — Culture-based method
⎯ Part 23: Performance test for evaluating the reduction of formaldehyde concentrations by sorptive
building materials
The following parts are under preparation:
⎯ Part 18: Detection and enumeration of moulds — Sampling by impaction
⎯ Part 19: Sampling strategy for moulds
⎯ Part 24: Performance test for evaluating the reduction of the concentrations of volatile organic
compounds and carbonyl compounds without formaldehyde concentrations by sorptive building materials
⎯ Part 25: Determination of the emission of semi-volatile organic compounds by building products — Micro-
chamber method
⎯ Part 28: Sensory evaluation of emissions from building materials and products
The following parts are planned:
⎯ Part 20: Detection and enumeration of moulds — Sampling from house dust
⎯ Part 21: Detection and enumeration of moulds — Sampling from materials
⎯ Part 22: Detection and enumeration of moulds — Molecular methods
⎯ Part 27: Standard method for the quantitative analysis of asbestos fibres in settled dust
Furthermore,
1)
⎯ ISO 12219-1 , Indoor air — Road vehicles — Part 1: Whole vehicle test chamber — Specification and
method for the determination of volatile organic compounds in car interiors, and
[44]
⎯ the two International Standards for indoor air, ambient air and workplace atmosphere, ISO 16017-1 on
[45]
pumped sampling and ISO 16017-2 on diffusive sampling
focus on volatile organic compound (VOC) measurements.
1) Under preparation.
© ISO 2008 – All rights reserved v
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
Introduction
In ISO 16000-1, general requirements relating to the measurement of indoor air pollutants and the important
conditions to be observed before or during the sampling of individual pollutants or groups of pollutants are
described.
This part of ISO 16000 describes basic aspects to be considered when working out a sampling strategy for the
measurements of nitrogen dioxide in indoor air. It is intended to be a link between ISO 16000-1, Indoor air —
Part 1: General aspects of sampling strategy, and the analytical procedures.
This part of ISO 16000 presupposes knowledge of ISO 16000-1.
This part of ISO 16000 uses the definition for indoor environment defined in ISO 16000-1 and Reference [1] as
dwellings having living rooms, bedrooms, DIY (do-it-yourself) rooms, recreation rooms and cellars, kitchens
and bathrooms, workrooms or work places in buildings which are not subject to health and safety inspections
with regard to air pollutants (for example, offices, sales premises), public buildings (for example hospitals,
schools, kindergartens, sports halls, libraries, restaurants and bars, theatres, cinemas and other function
rooms), and also cabins of vehicles and public transport.
[2]
The sampling strategy procedure described in this part of ISO 16000 is based on VDI 4300-5 .
vi © ISO 2008 – All rights reserved
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
Indoor air —
Part 15:
Sampling strategy for nitrogen dioxide (NO )
2
1 Scope
This part of ISO 16000 specifies the planning of nitrogen dioxide indoor pollution measurements. In the case
of indoor air measurements, the careful planning of sampling and the entire measurement strategy are of
particular significance since the result of the measurement may have far-reaching consequences, for
example, with regard to ascertaining the need for remedial action or the success of such an action.
An inappropriate measurement strategy may lead to misrepresentation of the true conditions or, worse, to
erroneous results.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 16000-1:2004, Indoor air — Part 1: General aspects of sampling strategy
3 Properties, origin and occurrence of nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide (NO , CAS No. 10102-44-0) is one of the important substances of the class of nitrous gases
2
or nitrogen oxides. NO is a reddish-brown gas with a sweet to pungent odour, which is also present to a
2
minor extent as dimeric colourless N O . Information on properties of NO and its effects on humans is
2 4 2
summarized elsewhere (see References [3], [4], [5], [6] and [7]).
In all combustion processes, nitrogen oxides (NO ) are formed by reaction of nitrogen and oxygen. The main
x
combustion product is nitrogen monoxide (NO), a certain fraction of which reacts further with oxygen to form
nitrogen dioxide. This reaction is exothermic so that cooling combustion exhaust gases promotes this
secondary NO formation.
2
In ambient air, heating power stations, motor vehicles, industrial heating systems and building heating
systems are the most important emission sources of NO . Indoor NO emissions are formed from combustion
2 2
sources such as heating and cooking with solid fuel (wood, coal), liquid fuel (oil, kerosene) or gaseous fuel
[town gas, natural gas, bottled gas (propane, butane)], especially in the initial heating phase. An unflued
appliance that releases combustion gases directly into the indoor air can be a particularly strong source. In the
literature, there are many reports on the results of NO determinations in indoor air (see References [4], [8],
2
3
and [9]). On the basis of these results, the average concentrations may range from under 10 µg/m to
3 2)
800 µg/m under different conditions .
3
2) In the literature, some concentrations are also reported in ppm (1 mg/m corresponds to 0,53 ppm at 293 K and
1,013 bar).
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
The concentration measured in indoor air is influenced by the frequency, duration and intensity of the indoor
combustion processes. The air change rate with the outdoors and the NO concentration of the ambient air
2
affect indoor NO concentrations. Further, decomposition reactions, i.e. those aided by indoor materials and
2
surfaces, cause a decrease in NO concentration.
2
The emissions from gas or kerosene apparatus can vary considerably. Thus, at the same output, kerosene
heaters (see Reference [10]) were found to give values that were four times higher than those from gas
heaters (see Reference [11]). These concentrations are of particular importance if the combustion gases are
in connection with the indoor air, as is the case in non-hermetically sealed exhaust air systems. Tobacco
smoke also contributes to NO concentrations.
2
4 Regulations
[5] [6]
Table 1 contains the Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) of the World Health Organization (WHO) , the risk-
related guide values for indoor air of the ad hoc working group Innenraumlufthygiene-Kommission des
[12]
Umweltbundesamtes und der Obersten Landesgesundheitsbehörden (ad hoc WG IRK/AOLG) , Germany,
[3]
as well as the effect-related Maximum Immission Concentration Values (guide values). In addition, the table
gives information on ambient air limit values for NO . However, it shall be explicitly stated here that these
2
ambient air values shall not be used for the assessment of indoor air, but are being cited because of the
interactions between indoor air and ambient air due to air change rate, mentioned above.
Table 1 — Assessment criteria for nitrogen dioxide
Value Measurement Concentration Area of validity References
period
3
µg/m
[5] [6]
WHO 1 h 200 indoor air / ambient air
WHO (2000) and WHO (2006)
[5] [6]
WHO Annual mean 40 indoor air / ambient air
WHO (2000) and WHO (2006)
a [3]
1 year 20 indoor air / ambient air
MIK VDI 2310-12
24 h 50
Ad hoc WG 0,5 h 350 indoor air Reference [12]
IRK/AOLG
Ad hoc WG 1 week 60 indoor air Reference [12]
IRK/AOLG
b [13]
1 h 200 ambient air
Limit value Directive 1999/30/EC
1 year 40
U.S. National 1 year 100 ambient air Environmental Protection Agency
[14]
Ambient Air Quality
40 CFR Part 50
(annual
Standard
arithmetic
mean)
c
California Ambient 1 h ambient air Reference [15]
340 (0,18 ppm)
Air Quality
c
1 year
57 (0,030 ppm)
Standards
(annual
arithmetic
mean)
Environmental 1 h 113 (0,06 ppm) ambient air Reference [16]
Quality Standards
in Japan
a
MIK (Maximale Immissions-Konzentration, maximum immission concentration), which, if adhered to, protects man and his
environment to the best of the present knowledge as derived on the basis of relevant criteria.
b 3
200 µg/m may not be exceeded more frequently than 18 times in one year. Date by which these limit values are to be met in all
EU countries: 1 January 2010.
c
Not to be exceeded. Values approved by the Air Resources Board in February 2007.
2 © ISO 2008 – All rights reserved
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
5 Measurement technique
5.1 General
A number of methods exist for measuring nitrogen dioxide in indoor air. In principle, these may be divided into
short-term measurement methods and long-term measurement methods. Manual analytical methods are used
for short-term measurements and diffusive samplers are often used for long-term measurements. When
diffusive samplers are used, the analytical part is substantially similar to that used with manual analytical
methods. In addition, the continuous monitoring instruments, which are usually used for ambient air
measurements, can also be used for either short- or long-term measurements. However, in this case, the
instrument costs and their noise could discourage their use indoors. Pre-testing of indoor concentrations can
be performed, if indicator tubes with a sufficiently low minimum detection limit and good precision are
available (see 5.4).
Analytical methods for determining nitrogen dioxide, which are suitable for use in the indoor environment, are
described in 5.2. Automatic measuring systems which have been type-approved for NO can also be used for
2
the analytical task (e.g. chemiluminescence method).
In addition to the methods described in these standards, the usefulness and reliability of newer methods such
as sensing based on amperometric sensors should be explored.
5.2 Short-term measurements
Short-term measurements are generally taken over a period of up to one hour. Measuring short-term peak
concentrations requires the use of a continuous analytical monitoring instrument having a high time resolution
[17] [18]
(10 s to 20 s). ISO 7996 and ASTM D3824 are such continuous monitoring methods based on the
principle of chemiluminescence. Alternative methods are manual methods where NO is enriched actively by
2
using suction pumps to pass the air through the sorbent medium. Measurements shall be performed
[19] [20] [21]
according to ISO 6768 , ASTM D1607-91 , or VDI 4301-1 . These methods are manual photometric
reference methods (Saltzman method) that differ only slightly. These manual methods provide an average
concentration for the duration of sampling and cannot provide a specific peak concentration. It should be
noted that if the three photometric reference methods (Saltzman methods) are used, then the environment to
be measured should be free of tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke interferes with the chemical reactions and
shall be removed by adequate ventilation before starting sampling.
5.3 Long-term measurements
In principle, continuous monitoring instruments are suitable for long-term measurements, but, owing to the
above-mentioned problems, sampling with diffusive samplers is preferable (see Annex A). Enrichment
systems of this type operate according to the principle of diffusion of a substance onto an adsorbent medium.
Using diffusive samplers, NO concentrations are integrated over a certain time (a few hours to days).
2
Concentration peaks are therefore incorporated into the averaged value determined over time.
Diffusive samplers for nitrogen dioxide are described in the literature, as are methods for evaluating their
performance (see Annex A). For epidemiological studies consisting of a large number of measurement
locations, diffusive samplers are suitable sampling devices, as these are simple and unobtrusive in daily
habitual use of the room. If required, they can also be worn by test persons and thus provide information on
personal exposure. Since NO reacts in the presence of ultra-violet light, direct UV light should be avoided
2
where diffusive samplers are placed.
[22]
EN 13528-3 is a guide to selection for use and maintenance of diffusive samplers. When diffusive samplers
are used, the method shall be completely documented together with its performance characteristics and
measurement uncertainties.
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SIST EN ISO 16000-15:2009
ISO 16000-15:2008(E)
5.4 Pre-testing
Screening tests provide an immediate, although not necessarily precise and accurate, indication of the
nitrogen dioxide concentration. Criteria for selection of such screening tests include sufficiently low minimum
3
detection limit (e.g. maximum 50 µg/m ) and adequate precision (e.g. 25 %). Commercially available test
tubes and direct-reading diffusive samplers meeting these criteria may be available that are relatively simple
to use and provide results for planning further procedures. The results of screening tests may be used to
decide whether further measurements are required. In certain cases, the screening tests may indicate that no
further measurements are required (see Annex B). A nitrogen dioxide concentration near or above a given
guideline value would emphasize the need for further measurements using the measurement techniques
described in 5.2.
The screening tests should be conducted using the principles described above to design an appropriate
strategy. Examples of screening tests are given in Annex B.
6 Measurement planning
6.1 General
In Clause 3, it is mentioned that the occurrence of nitrogen dioxide in indoor air is principally due to
combustion processes using open flames. It may be concluded from this that domestic households will
primarily be subject to corresponding investigations. It will be necessary to take into account here, as
important factors, the emission characteristics of the sources (the majority will be point sources with
intermittent emission) and the effect of ambient air due to air change. The results of a survey carried out in
advance are an important component of measurement planning.
6.2 Measurement objective and boundary conditions
6.2.1 General
Before indoor air measurements can be carried out, the purpose of the measurement shall be clearly defined.
The following types of objectives are possible when nitrogen dioxide concentrations are being determined:
a) compliance testing [checking compliance with a guideline value (e.g. in the case of complaints)];
b) research studies [studies with objectives such as determining indoor air pollution of significance to health
(e.g. during epidemiological study programmes)];
c) determining the ratio of indoor and ambient air concentrations.
6.2.2 Compliance testing
A comparison of the data in Tables 1 and 2 shows concentrations exceeding preset guideline values. For this
reason, checking of compliance with guideline values is important. If it is suspected that a guideline value has
been exceeded, measurements shall in general be made under the conditions specified in connection with the
guideline value.
Because of the intermittent character of the usual NO sources, NO shall be determined in indoor air under
2 2
the conditions of use. Since these vary, the patterns of behaviour of the users with respect to activity of NO
2
sources shall be taken into account and documented in measurement planning. In cases of complaints, it
should be noted that behaviour of users affects NO emissions (including behaviour related to cooking
2
practices and the thermostat setting, which i
...
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