E44.09 - Photovoltaic Electric Power Conversion

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Photovoltaic modules are electrical dc sources. dc sources have unique considerations with regards to arc formation and interruption, as once formed, the arc is not automatically interrupted by an alternating current. Solar modules are energized whenever modules in the string are illuminated by sunlight, or during fault conditions.  
5.2 With the rapid increase in the number of photovoltaic system installations, this guide attempts to increase awareness of methods to reduce the risk of fire from photovoltaic systems.  
5.3 This guide is intended for use by module manufacturers, panel assemblers, system designers, installers, and specifiers.  
5.4 This guide may be used to specify minimum requirements. It is not intended to capture all conditions or scenarios which could result in a fire.
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1.1 This guide describes basic principles of photovoltaic module design, panel assembly, and system installation to reduce the risk of fire originating from the photovoltaic source circuit.  
1.2 This guide is not intended to cover all scenarios which could lead to fire. It is intended to provide an assembly of generally accepted practices.  
1.3 This guide is intended for systems which contain photovoltaic modules and panels as dc source circuits, although the recommended practices may also apply to systems utilizing ac modules.  
1.4 This guide does not cover fire suppression in the event of a fire involving a photovoltaic module or system.  
1.5 This guide does not cover fire emanating from other sources.  
1.6 This guide does not cover mechanical, structural, electrical, or other considerations key to photovoltaic module and system design and installation.  
1.7 This guide does not cover disposal of modules damaged by a fire, or other material hazards related to such modules.  
1.8 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.10 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice can be used to determine an expected capacity for an existing or a proposed photovoltaic system in a particular location during a specified period of time (see data collection period in Test Method E2848).  
5.2 The expected capacity calculated in accordance with this practice can be compared with the capacity measured according to Test Method E2848 when the RC are the same.  
5.3 The comparison of expected capacity and measured capacity can be used as a criterion for plant acceptance.  
5.4 The user of this practice must select the performance simulation period over which the reporting conditions and expected capacity will be derived. Seasonal variations will likely cause both of these to change with differing performance simulation periods.  
5.5 When this practice is used in conjunction with Test Method E2848, the performance simulation period and the data collection period must agree. If they do not agree, the comparison between expected and measured capacity will not be meaningful.  
5.6 Historical or measured5 plane-of-array irradiance, ambient air temperature, and wind speed data can be used to select reporting conditions and calculate expected capacity. If historical data are used, the data collection period should match the time period of the measured data in terms of season and length.  
5.7 The simulated power output that is used to calculate the expected capacity should be derived from a performance model designed to represent the photovoltaic system which will be reported per Test Method E2848.
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1.1 This practice provides procedures for determining the expected capacity of a specific photovoltaic system in a specific geographical location that is in operation under natural sunlight during a specified period of time. The expected capacity is intended for comparison with the measured capacity determined by Test Method E2848.  
1.2 This practice is intended for use with Test Method E2848 as a procedure to select appropriate reporting conditions (RC), including solar irradiance in the plane of the modules, ambient temperature, and wind speed needed for the photovoltaic system capacity measurement.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Because there are a number of choices in this test method that depend on different applications and system configurations, it is the responsibility of the user of this test method to specify the details and protocol of an individual system power measurement prior to the beginning of a measurement.  
5.2 Unlike device-level measurements that report performance at a fixed device temperature of 25 °C, such as Test Methods E1036, this test method uses regression to a reference ambient air temperature.  
5.2.1 System power values calculated using this test method are therefore much more indicative of the power a system actually produces compared with reporting performance at a relatively cold device temperature such as 25 °C.  
5.2.2 Using ambient temperature reduces the complexity of the data acquisition and analysis by avoiding the issues associated with defining and measuring the device temperature of an entire photovoltaic system.  
5.2.3 The user of this test method must select the time period over which system data are collected, and the averaging interval for the data collection within the constraints of 8.3.  
5.2.4 It is assumed that the system performance does not degrade or change during the data collection time period. This assumption influences the selection of the data collection period because system performance can have seasonal variations.  
5.3 The irradiance shall be measured in the plane of the modules under test. If multiple planes exist (particularly in the case of rolling terrain), then the plane or planes in which irradiance measurement will occur must be reported with the test results. In the case where this test method is to be used for acceptance testing of a photovoltaic system or reporting of photovoltaic system performance for contractual purposes, the plane or planes in which irradiance measurement will occur must be agreed upon by the parties to the test prior to the start of the test.
Note 1: In general, the irradiance measur...
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1.1 This test method provides measurement and analysis procedures for determining the capacity of a specific photovoltaic system built in a particular place and in operation under natural sunlight.  
1.2 This test method is used for the following purposes:  
1.2.1 Acceptance testing of newly installed photovoltaic systems,  
1.2.2 Reporting of dc or ac system performance, and  
1.2.3 Monitoring of photovoltaic system performance.  
1.3 This test method should not be used for:  
1.3.1 Testing of individual photovoltaic modules for comparison to nameplate power ratings,  
1.3.2 Testing of individual photovoltaic modules or systems for comparison to other photovoltaic modules or systems, and  
1.3.3 Testing of photovoltaic systems for the purpose of comparing the performance of photovoltaic systems located in different places.  
1.4 In this test method, photovoltaic system power is reported with respect to a set of reporting conditions (RC) including solar irradiance in the plane of the modules, ambient temperature, and wind speed (see Section 6). Measurements under a variety of reporting conditions are allowed to facilitate testing and comparison of results.  
1.5 This test method assumes that the solar cell temperature is directly influenced by ambient temperature and wind speed; if not the regression results may be less meaningful.  
1.6 The capacity measured according to this test method should not be used to make representations about the energy generation capabilities of the system.  
1.7 This test method is not applicable to concentrator photovoltaic systems; as an alternative, Test Method E2527 should be considered for such systems.  
1.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Environmental stress tests, such as those listed in 1.2, are normally used to evaluate module designs prior to production or purchase. These test methods rely on performing electrical tests and visual inspections of modules before and after stress testing to determine the effects of the exposures.  
4.2 Effects of environmental stress testing may vary from no effects to significant changes. Some physical changes in the module may be visible when there are no measurable electrical changes. Similarly, electrical changes in the module may occur with no visible changes.  
4.3 It is the intent of this practice to provide a recognized procedure for performing visual inspections and to specify effects that should be reported.  
4.4 Many of these effects are subjective. In order to determine if a module has passed a visual inspection, the user of this practice must specify what changes or conditions are acceptable. The user may have to judge whether changes noted during an inspection will limit the useful life of a module design.
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1.1 This practice covers procedures and criteria for visual inspections of photovoltaic modules.  
1.2 Visual inspections of photovoltaic modules are normally performed before and after modules have been subjected to environmental, electrical, or mechanical stress testing, such as thermal cycling, humidity-freeze cycling, damp heat exposure, ultraviolet exposure, mechanical loading, hail impact testing, outdoor exposure, or other stress testing that may be part of the photovoltaic module testing sequence.  
1.3 This practice does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of partial shadowing of the module(s) during operation. This test method describes a procedure for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate protection against the potential harmful effects of hot spots during normal installation and use.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from internal defects which could cause loss of electrical insulation or combustion hazards.  
4.3 Hot spot heating occurs in a module when its operating current exceeds the reduced short-circuit current (ISC) of a shadowed or faulty cell or group of cells. When such a condition occurs, the affected cell or group of cells is forced into reverse bias and must dissipate power, which can cause overheating.
Note 1: The correct use of bypass diodes can prevent hot spot damage from occurring.  
4.4 Fig. 1 illustrates the hot spot effect in a module of a series string of cells, one of which, cell Y, is partially shadowed. The amount of electrical power dissipated in Y is equal to the product of the module current and the reverse voltage developed across Y. For any irradiance level, when the reverse voltage across Y is equal to the voltage generated by the remaining (s-1) cells in the module, power dissipation is at a maximum when the module is short-circuited. This is shown in Fig. 1 by the shaded rectangle constructed at the intersection of the reverse I-V characteristic of Y with the image of the forward I-V characteristic of the (s-1) cells.
FIG. 1 Hot Spot Effect  
4.5 Bypass diodes, if present, as shown in Fig. 2, begin conducting when a series-connected string in a module is in reverse bias, thereby limiting the power dissipation in the reduced-output cell.  
FIG. 2 Bypass Diode Effect  
Note 2: If the ...
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure to determine the ability of a photovoltaic (PV) module to endure the long-term effects of periodic “hot spot” heating associated with common fault conditions such as severely cracked or mismatched cells, single-point open circuit failures (for example, interconnect failures), partial (or nonuniform) shadowing, or soiling. Such effects typically include solder melting or deterioration of the encapsulation, but in severe cases could progress to combustion of the PV module and surrounding materials.  
1.2 There are two ways that cells can cause a hot spot problem: either by having a high resistance so that there is a large resistance in the circuit, or by having a low resistance area (shunt) such that there is a high current flow in a localized region. This test method selects cells of both types to be stressed.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of hazard should the user come into contact with the electrical potential of the module or system. In addition, the insulation system provides a barrier to electrochemical corrosion, and insulation flaws can result in increased corrosion and reliability problems. These test methods describe procedures for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate electrical isolation through normal installation and use. At no location on the module should the PV-generated electrical potential be accessible, with the obvious exception of the output leads. This isolation is necessary to provide for safe and reliable installation, use, and service of the photovoltaic system.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from electrical hazards. Its primary use is to find insulation flaws that could be dangerous to persons who may come into contact with the module, especially when modules are wet. For example, these flaws could be small holes in the encapsulation that allow hazardous voltages to be accessible on the outside surface of a module after a period of high humidity.  
4.3 Insulation flaws in a module may only become detectable after the module has been wet for a certain period of time. For this reason, these procedures specify a minimum time a module must be immersed prior to the insulation integrity measurements.  
4.4 Electrical junction boxes attached to modules are often designed to allow liquid water, accumulated from condensed water vapor, to drain. Such drain paths are usually designed to permit water to exit, but not to allow impinging water from rain or water sprinklers to enter. It is important that all surfaces of junction boxes be thoroughly wetted by spraying during the tests to enable t...
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1.1 These test methods provide procedures to determine the insulation resistance of a photovoltaic (PV) module, i.e. the electrical resistance between the module's internal electrical components and its exposed, electrically conductive, non-current carrying parts and surfaces.  
1.2 The insulation integrity procedures are a combination of wet insulation resistance and wet dielectric voltage withstand test procedures.  
1.3 These procedures are similar to and reference the insulation integrity test procedures described in Test Methods E1462, with the difference being that the photovoltaic module under test is immersed in a wetting solution during the procedures.  
1.4 These test methods do not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of these test methods.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific precautionary statements, see Section 6.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
6.1 The primary goal of this practice is to extract representative samples from PV modules for TCLP toxicity testing purposes in order to receive unbiased, comparable and repeatable toxicity test results from independent TCLP testing laboratories.  
6.2 Solar photovoltaic (PV) modules in the United States and the world reaching end-of-life due to failure, underperformance or breakage due to extreme weather have to be recycled or otherwise safely disposed of following the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulation [United States, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Pub.L. 94–580, October 1976]. For end-of-life PV modules, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method 1311 (TCLP) is used for waste characterization based on leaching potential under simulated landfill conditions.  
6.3 Commercial PV modules contain compounds and alloys of various metals (for example, Ag, Al, Cd, Cu, Ga, In, Ni, Pb, Se, Sn, Te, Zn) which are used in semiconductor compounds and electrical contacts.5 Modules that pass the EPA Method 1311 TCLP test, and state protocols (if applicable), can be disposed of in a regular landfill. Otherwise, they are classified as hazardous waste and must go through a more onerous and expensive disposal process. Currently, there is no national or international standard, nor a standardized protocol available for removal of test samples from PV modules for toxicity testing per the EPA Method 1311 standard.  
6.4 The validity of the toxicity test results heavily depends on the location of extracted samples in the module, specifically within the laminate area, and the particle size of the extracted samples. Therefore, it is critical that the sample extraction procedure be properly designed to avoid biased or otherwise inaccurate toxicity test results.  
6.5 The development and application of a homogeneous and representative sampling standard will help utilities and manufacturers to limit the number of variables and to obtain repeatable...
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1.1 The purpose of this practice is to describe a representative and repeatable sample preparation methodology to conduct toxicity testing on solar photovoltaic (PV) modules for use with EPA Test Method 1311: Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP).  
1.2 This practice refers to the extraction and preparation of PV module samples by EPA Method 1311, the testing for eight (8) distinct metals – mercury (by Method 7470A), arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, selenium and silver (by Method 6010C) as well as the analysis and interpretation of the test results on a module level.  
1.3 This practice applies to only (1) standard crystalline silicon (c-Si) modules, multi and mono-crystalline silicon with aluminum back surface field (Al-BSF) cell technology and (2) cadmium telluride (CdTe) PV modules.  
1.4 Other and newer PV technologies and module architectures, for example, passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC), interdigitated back contact (IBC), hetero-junction technology (HJT), multiwire, half cut, shingled etc., have not been evaluated with this practice, although the concept and practice can be easily extended and applied to other technologies following the conceptual approach presented in this document.  
1.5 The sample extraction/removal methodology applied in this practice is the waterjet cutting sampling method. Sample extraction with mechanical cutting has been extensively evaluated but the variability of TCLP test results based on the mechanical cut samples tend to be much higher (30 %) than that of the waterjet cut samples (8 %).2 Therefore, the mechanical cut method is not presented in this practice.  
1.6 Only the laminate area of the PV module is considered for TCLP testing, as other possible module parts, such as aluminum frame, junction box and cables contain recyclable materials that are already well-documented and are not specific to the PV modules.  
1.7 The material gravimetric density...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The electrical output of a photovoltaic device is dependent on the spectral content of the illumination source, its intensity, and the device temperature. To make standardized, accurate measurements of the performance of photovoltaic devices under a variety of light sources when the intensity is measured with a calibrated reference cell, it is necessary to account for the error in the short-circuit current that occurs if the relative quantum efficiency of the reference cell is not identical to the quantum efficiency of the device to be tested. A similar error occurs if the spectral irradiance distribution of the test light source is not identical to the desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. These errors are accounted for by the spectral mismatch parameter (described in Test Method E973), which is a quantitative measure of the error in the short-circuit current measurement. It is the intent of this test method to provide a recognized procedure for calibrating, characterizing, and reporting the calibration data for primary photovoltaic reference cells using a tabular reference spectrum.  
5.2 The calibration of a reference cell is specific to a particular spectral irradiance distribution. It is the responsibility of the user to specify the applicable irradiance distribution, for example Tables G173. This test method allows calibration with respect to any tabular spectrum.  
5.2.1 Tables G173 do not provide spectral irradiance data for wavelengths longer than 4 μm, yet pyrheliometers (see 6.1) typically have response in the 4–10 μm region. To mitigate this discrepancy, the Tables G173 spectra must be extended with the data provided in Annex A2.  
5.3 A reference cell should be recalibrated at yearly intervals, or every six months if the cell is in continuous use outdoors.  
5.4 Recommended physical characteristics of reference cells can be found in Specification E1040.  
5.5 High-quality silicon primary reference cells are expected to be stable d...
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1.1 This test method is intended for calibration and characterization of primary terrestrial photovoltaic reference cells to a desired reference spectral irradiance distribution, such as Tables G173. The recommended physical requirements for these reference cells are described in Specification E1040. Reference cells are principally used in the determination of the electrical performance of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 Primary photovoltaic reference cells are calibrated in natural sunlight using the relative quantum efficiency of the cell, the relative spectral distribution of the sunlight, and a tabulated reference spectral irradiance distribution. Selection of the reference spectral irradiance distribution is left to the user.  
1.3 This test method requires the use of a pyrheliometer that is calibrated according to Test Method E816, which requires the use of a pyrheliometer that is traceable to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR). Therefore, reference cells calibrated according to this test method are traceable to the WRR.  
1.4 This test method is used to calibrate primary reference cells; Test Method E1362 may be used to calibrate secondary and non-primary reference cells (these terms are defined in Terminology E772).  
1.5 This test method applies only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that shows a linear dependence of its short-circuit current on irradiance over its intended range of use, as defined in Test Method E1143.  
1.6 This test method applies only to the calibration of a reference cell fabricated with a single photovoltaic junction.  
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The calculated error in the photovoltaic device current determined from the spectral mismatch parameter can be used to determine if a measurement will be within specified limits before the actual measurement is performed.  
5.2 The spectral mismatch parameter also provides a means of correcting the error in the measured device current due to spectral mismatch.  
5.2.1 The spectral mismatch parameter is formulated as the fractional error in the short-circuit current due to spectral and temperature differences.  
5.2.2 Error due to spectral mismatch is corrected by multiplying a reference cell’s measured short-circuit current by M , a technique used in Test Methods E948 and E1036.  
5.3 Because all spectral quantities appear in both the numerator and the denominator in the calculation of the spectral mismatch parameter (see 8.1), multiplicative calibration errors cancel, and therefore only relative quantities are needed (although absolute spectral quantities may be used if available).  
5.4 Temperature-dependent spectral mismatch is a more accurate method to correct photovoltaic current measurements compared with fixed-value temperature coefficients.3
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure for the determination of a spectral mismatch parameter used in performance testing of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 The spectral mismatch parameter is a measure of the error introduced in the testing of a photovoltaic device that is caused by the photovoltaic device under test and the photovoltaic reference cell having non-identical quantum efficiencies, as well as mismatch between the test light source and the reference spectral irradiance distribution to which the photovoltaic reference cell was calibrated.  
1.2.1 Examples of reference spectral irradiance distributions are Tables E490 or G173.  
1.3 The spectral mismatch parameter can be used to correct photovoltaic performance data for spectral mismatch error.  
1.4 Temperature-dependent quantum efficiencies are used to quantify the effects of temperature differences between test conditions and reporting conditions.  
1.5 This test method is intended for use with linear photovoltaic devices in which short-circuit is directly proportional to incident irradiance.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

ABSTRACT
This specification describes the physical requirements for primary and secondary nonconcentrator terrestrial phorovoltaic reference cells based on small-cell package design and module-package design. These requirements include those for product marking, reference cell material, window, configuration, electrical connectors, and temperature sensor.
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1.1 This specification describes the physical requirements for primary and secondary terrestrial nonconcentrator photovoltaic reference cells. A reference cell is defined as a device that meets the requirements of this specification and is calibrated in accordance with Test Method E1125 or Test Method E1362.  
1.2 Reference cells are used in the determination of the electrical performance of photovoltaic devices, as stated in Test Methods E948 and E1036.  
1.3 Two reference cell physical specifications are described:  
1.3.1 Small-Cell Package Design—A small, durable package with a low thermal mass, wide optical field-of-view, and standardized dimensions intended for photovoltaic devices up to 20 by 20 mm, and  
1.3.2 Module-Package Design—A package intended to simulate the optical and thermal properties of a photovoltaic module design, but electric connections are made to only one photovoltaic cell in order to eliminate problems with calibrating series and parallel connections of cells. Physical dimensions are not standardized.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method provides a procedure for testing and reporting the electrical performance of photovoltaic cells.  
5.2 The test results may be used for comparison of cells among a group of similar cells or to compare diverse designs, such as different manufacturers' products. Repeated measurements of the same cell may be used to study changes in device performance.  
5.3 This test method determines the electrical performance of a photovoltaic cell at a single instant of time and the results do no imply any past or future performance.  
5.4 This test method requires a linear reference cell calibrated with respect to an appropriate reference spectral irradiance distribution, such as Tables E490, or G173. It is the responsibility of the user to determine which reference spectral irradiance distribution is appropriate for a particular application.
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1.1 This test method covers the determination of the electrical performance of a photovoltaic cell under simulated sunlight by means of a calibrated reference cell procedure.  
1.2 Electrical performance measurements are reported with respect to a select set of standard reporting conditions (SRC) (see Table 1) or to user-specified reporting conditions. In either case, the chosen reporting conditions are abbreviated as RC.  
1.2.1 The RC include the cell temperature, the total irradiance, and the reference spectral irradiance distribution.  
1.3 This test method is applicable only to photovoltaic cells with a linear short-circuit current versus total irradiance response up to and including the total irradiance used in the measurement.  
1.4 The cell parameters determined by this test method apply only at the time of test, and imply no past or future performance level.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Photovoltaic modules and components must be resistant to prolonged exposure to solar radiation, moisture and heat. Degradation of polymeric components, delamination at the encapsulant and other interfaces, and moisture ingress are among the degradation modes known to decrease the output of photovoltaic modules. IEC qualification standards for PV modules include tests intended to uncover whether solar ultraviolet radiation induced degradation may cause early-life failures. This practice provides general and specific guidance on performing tests that meet the requirements of the ultraviolet radiation conditioning exposures in the IEC qualification standards.4 Other protocols exist that may also conform to the IEC test requirements.  
5.2 In the qualification test sequence, this UV preconditioning exposure is conducted prior to the thermal cycling and humidity freeze tests. These tests were included to replicate a delamination failure observed in modules.5  
5.3 IEC exposure methods should not be considered as long-term weathering tests. Exposure to moisture in the form of condensation or water spray is not a requirement of the UV exposure tests in IEC PV module qualification standards. Inclusion of moisture is typically a consideration in weathering tests.  
5.4 Variation in test results may be expected when operating conditions are varied within the acceptable limits of this standard. In particular, reciprocity of degradation among varying irradiance levels should not be assumed. Consequently, no reference to this practice should be made without an accompanying report prepared in accordance with Section 9 that describes the specific operating conditions used.  
5.5 Correlation between this practice and long term performance of PV modules in real-world installations has not been determined. Although experience has shown these methods are effective in screening for unstable materials and systems, it is unknown at this time if degradation due to prolonged solar...
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1.1 This practice covers specific procedures and test conditions for performing ultraviolet conditioning exposures on photovoltaic modules or mini-modules using fluorescent ultraviolet lamps in accordance with Practices G151 and G154. This practice covers test conditions that meet the requirements for UV preconditioning in initial qualification tests of photovoltaic modules or mini-modules as published in International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 In a series-connected multijunction PV device, the incident total and spectral irradiance determines which component cell will generate the smallest photocurrent and thus limit the current through the entire series-connected device. This current-limiting behavior also affects the fill factor of the device. Because of this, special techniques are needed to measure the correct I-V characteristics of multijunction devices under the desired reporting conditions (see Test Methods E1036).  
4.2 These test methods use a numerical parameter called the current balance which is a measure of how well the test conditions replicate the desired reporting conditions. When the current balance deviates from unity by more than 0.03, the uncertainty of the measurement may be increased.  
4.3 The effects of current limiting in individual component cells can cause problems for I-V curve translations to different temperature and irradiance conditions, such as the translations recommended in Test Methods E1036. For example, if a different component cell becomes the limiting cell as the irradiance is varied, a discontinuity in the current versus irradiance characteristic may be observed. For this reason, it is recommended that I-V characteristics of multijunction devices be measured at temperature and irradiance conditions close to the desired reporting conditions.  
4.4 Some multijunction devices have more than two terminals which allow electrical connections to each component cell. In these cases, the special techniques for spectral response measurements are not needed because the component cells can be measured individually. However, these I-V techniques are still needed if the device is intended to be operated as a two-terminal device.  
4.5 Using these test methods, the spectral response is typically measured while the individual component cell under test is illuminated at levels that are less than Eo. Nonlinearity of the spectral response may cause the measured results to dif...
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1.1 These test methods provide special techniques needed to determine the electrical performance and spectral response of two-terminal, multijunction photovoltaic (PV) devices, both cell and modules.  
1.2 These test methods are modifications and extensions of the procedures for single-junction devices defined by Test Methods E948, E1021, and E1036.  
1.3 These test methods do not include temperature and irradiance corrections for spectral response and current-voltage (I-V) measurements. Procedures for such corrections are available in Test Methods E948, E1021, and E1036.  
1.4 These test methods may be applied to cells and modules intended for concentrator applications.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The useful life of photovoltaic modules deployed in marine applications (such as floating aids-to-navigation) may depend on the ability to withstand repeated exposure to salt atmosphere, immersion in seawater, and the temperature changes associated with seawater splash falling on modules operating in sunlight. The effects of these exposures may be physical or electrical changes in the module, or both.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for positioning the test specimen, conducting a cyclical combined pressure, immersion, and temperature (PIT) test, and reporting the results. It also references methods for conducting module electrical performance and insulation integrity tests.  
4.3 Data generated by this test method may be used to evaluate and compare the effects of a simulated marine environment on test specimens. This test method requires recording of visible effects as well as electrical performance.  
4.3.1 Effects on modules may vary from none to significant changes. Some physical changes in the module may be visible when there are no apparent electrical changes in the module. Similarly, electrical changes may occur with no visible changes in the module.
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure for determining the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand repeated immersion or splash exposure by seawater as might be encountered when installed in a marine environment, such as a floating aid-to-navigation. A combined environmental cycling exposure with modules repeatedly submerged in simulated saltwater at varying temperatures and under repetitive pressurization provides an accelerated basis for evaluation of aging effects of a marine environment on module materials and construction.  
1.2 This test method defines photovoltaic module test specimens and requirements for positioning modules for test, references suitable methods for determining changes in electrical performance and characteristics, and specifies parameters which must be recorded and reported.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 It is the intent of these procedures to provide recognized methods for testing and reporting the electrical performance of photovoltaic modules and arrays.  
5.2 The test results may be used for comparison of different modules or arrays among a group of similar items that might be encountered in testing a group of modules or arrays from a single source. They also may be used to compare diverse designs, such as products from different manufacturers. Repeated measurements of the same module or array may be used for the study of changes in device performance.  
5.3 Measurements may be made over a range of test conditions. The measurement data are numerically translated from the test conditions to standard RC, to nominal operating conditions, or to optional user-specified reporting conditions. Recommended RC are defined in Table 1.    
5.3.1 If the test conditions are such that the device temperature is within ±2°C of the RC temperature and the total irradiance is within ±5 % of the RC irradiance, the numerical translation consists of a correction to the measured device current based on the total irradiance during the  I-V measurement.  
5.3.2 If the provision in 5.3.1 is not met, performance at RC is obtained from four separate I-V measurements at temperature and irradiance conditions that bracket the desired RC using a bilinear interpolation method.4
5.3.2.1 There are a variety of methods that may be used to bracket the temperature and irradiance. One method involves cooling the module under test below the reference temperature and making repeated measurements of the I-V characteristics as the module warms up. The irradiance of pulsed light sources may be adjusted by using neutral density mesh filters of varying transmittance. If the distance between the simulator and the test plane can be varied then this adjustment can be used to change the irradiance. In natural sunlight, the irradiance will change with the time of day or if the solar incidence angle is a...
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1.1 These test methods cover the electrical performance of photovoltaic modules and arrays under natural or simulated sunlight using a calibrated reference cell.  
1.1.1 These test methods allow a reference module to be used instead of a reference cell provided the reference module has been calibrated using these test methods against a calibrated reference cell.  
1.2 Measurements under a variety of conditions are allowed; results are reported under a select set of reporting conditions (RC) to facilitate comparison of results.  
1.3 These test methods apply only to nonconcentrator terrestrial modules and arrays.  
1.4 The performance parameters determined by these test methods apply only at the time of the test, and imply no past or future performance level.  
1.5 These test methods apply to photovoltaic modules and arrays that do not contain series-connected photovoltaic multijunction devices; such module and arrays should be tested according to Test Methods E2236.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 It is the intent of this test method to provide a recognized procedure for testing and reporting the electrical performance of a photovoltaic concentrator module or system.  
5.2 If an inverter is used as part of the system, this test method can provide a dc or ac rating or both. The dc or ac rating depends on whether the inverter input or output is monitored.  
5.3 The test results may be used for comparison among a group of modules or systems from a single source. They also may be used to compare diverse designs, such as products from different manufacturers. Repeated measurements of the same module or system may be used for the study of changes in device performance over a long period of time or as a result of stress testing.  
5.4 The test method is limited to modules and systems where the concentrated irradiance on the component cells is greater than 5000 Wm-2 at Eo. This limitation is necessary because the total irradiance is measured with a radiometer with a field of view less than 6° and because the correlation between the direct irradiance and the power produced decreases with increasing concentrator field of view.  
5.5 This test method assumes that the regression equation accurately predicts the concentrator performance as a function of total irradiance with a fixed spectral irradiance, wind speed, and air temperature. The spectral distribution will be seasonal and site specific because of optical air mass, water vapor, aerosols, and other meteorological variables.
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1.1 This test method covers the determination of the electrical performance of photovoltaic concentrator modules and systems under natural sunlight using a normal incidence pyrheliometer.  
1.2 The test method is limited to module assemblies and systems where the geometric concentration ratio specified by the manufacturer is greater than 5.  
1.3 This test method applies to concentrators that use passive cooling where the cell temperature is related to the air temperature.  
1.4 Measurements under a variety of conditions are allowed; results are reported under a select set of concentrator reporting conditions to facilitate comparison of results.  
1.5 This test method applies only to concentrator terrestrial modules and systems.  
1.6 This test method assumes that the module or system electrical performance characteristics do not change during the period of test.  
1.7 The performance rating determined by this test method applies only at the period of the test, and implies no past or future performance level.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 With the rapid growth of the use of photovoltaic systems in buildings, roof mounted arrays continue to be one of the most prevalent forms of installations. These roof mounted arrays typically feature penetrations into the roof system, which can result in water leakage issues if not properly flashed or applied to the roof system.  
4.2 Structural integrity and durability of the application of the roof mounted array to the roof system must be adequate per applicable codes and regulations. This applies to both the photovoltaic module-to-array mounting structure interface and the array mounting structure-to-roof interface.  
4.3 The installation of roof mounted arrays presents certain hazards that must be addressed, which include fall protection, carrying loads up ladders, wind and rain exposure during installation, and electrical exposure during connections.  
4.4 The topics covered in 4.1 through 4.3 are potentially a significant barrier to broad acceptance of roof mounted photovoltaic systems if not adequately addressed.
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1.1 This practice details minimum requirements for the installation of roof mounted photovoltaic arrays on steep-sloped roofs with water-shedding roof coverings. These requirements include proper water-shedding integration with the roof system, material properties, flashing of roof penetrations, and sufficient anchoring per regional design load requirements.  
1.1.1 This practice does not apply to building-integrated or adhesively attached photovoltaic systems that are applied as roof-covering components.  
1.2 This practice does not cover the electrical aspects of installation.  
1.3 Installation considerations are divided into two distinct aspects: the interface between the photovoltaic module and the array mounting structure, and the interface between the array mounting structure and the roof or roof structure.  
1.4 Safety and hazard considerations unique to this application, such as worker fall protection, electrical exposure, accessibility of modules, and roof clearance around the perimeter of the array are addressed by other codes, standards, or authorities having jurisdiction.  
1.5 This practice is intended to provide recommended installation practices for use by installers, specifiers, inspectors, or for specification by photovoltaic module manufacturers.  
1.6 This practice provides minimum guidelines and should be used in conjunction with module and mounting system manufacturers’ instructions. This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM Standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.7 This practice is not intended to replace or supersede any other applicable local codes, standards or Licensed Design Professional instructions for a given installation.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific hazards are given in Section 8.  
1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 It is the intent of these test methods to provide a recognized procedure for calibrating, characterizing, and reporting the calibration data for non-primary photovoltaic reference cells that are used during photovoltaic device performance measurements.  
5.2 The electrical output of photovoltaic devices is dependent on the spectral content of the source illumination and its intensity. To make accurate measurements of the performance of photovoltaic devices under a variety of light sources, it is necessary to account for the error in the short-circuit current that occurs if the relative spectral response of the reference cell is not identical to the spectral response of the device under test. A similar error occurs if the spectral irradiance distribution of the test light source is not identical to the desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. These errors are quantified with the spectral mismatch parameter M (Test Method E973).  
5.2.1 Test Method E973 requires four quantities for spectral mismatch calculations:
5.2.1.1 The quantum efficiency of the reference cell to be calibrated (see 7.1.1),
5.2.1.2 The quantum efficiency of the calibration source device (required as part of its calibration),
Note 1: See 10.10 of Test Method E1021 for the identity that converts spectral responsivity to quantum efficiency.
5.2.1.3 The spectral irradiance of the light source (measured with the spectral irradiance measurement equipment), and,
5.2.1.4 The reference spectral irradiance distribution to which the calibration source device was calibrated (see G173).  
5.2.2 Temperature Corrections—Test Method E973 provides means for temperature corrections to short-circuit current using the partial derivative of quantum efficiency with respect to temperature.  
5.3 A non-primary reference cell is calibrated in accordance with these test methods is with respect to the same reference spectral irradiance distribution as that of the calibration source device. Prima...
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1.1 These test methods cover calibration and characterization of non-primary terrestrial photovoltaic reference cells to a desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. The recommended physical requirements for these reference cells are described in Specification E1040. Reference cells are principally used in the determination of the electrical performance of a photovoltaic device.  
1.2 Non-primary reference cells are calibrated indoors using simulated sunlight or outdoors in natural sunlight by reference to a previously calibrated reference cell, which is referred to as the calibration source device.  
1.2.1 The non-primary calibration will be with respect to the same reference spectral irradiance distribution as that of the calibration source device.  
1.2.2 The calibration source device may be a primary reference cell calibrated in accordance with Test Method E1125, or a non-primary reference cell calibrated in accordance with these test methods.  
1.2.3 For the special case in which the calibration source device is a primary reference cell, the resulting non-primary reference cell is also referred to as a secondary reference cell.  
1.3 Non-primary reference cells calibrated according to these test methods will have the same radiometric traceability as that of the calibration source device. Therefore, if the calibration source device is traceable to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR, see Test Method E816), the resulting secondary reference cell will also be traceable to the WRR.  
1.4 These test methods apply only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that demonstrates a linear short-circuit current versus irradiance characteristic over its intended range of use, as defined in Test Method E1143.  
1.5 These test methods apply only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that has been fabricated using a single photovoltaic junction.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as stan...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 With the rapid expansion of the commercial photovoltaic market and the various standards and independent certification entities evolving, a consensus standard practice for the ICOMP process is needed to bring consistency to the market.  
4.2 Investors and insurance companies need consistency of product and standards to reduce costs of capital and underwriting. Use of a consensus standard practice is expected to improve consistency and reduce risk for investors.  
4.3 Photovoltaic systems operate in harsh environments that are not typical for electrical equipment and generally inconsistent with electrical contractor experience. Documented processes are needed to ensure performance and durability of the systems over the long operating life.  
4.4 The goal of this practice is to implement processes to improve safety and reliability, reduce lifecycle costs (commonly referred to as Levelized Cost of Energy or LCOE), and encourage the development of feedback loops for continuous improvement of results.  
4.5 This practice may be applied during any or all phases of the PV System Lifecycle (refer to Section 5). A record of the activities carried out according to this practice shall be included in the Report (refer to Section 8).
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1.1 This practice details the minimum requirements for installation, commissioning, operations, and maintenance processes to ensure safe and reliable power generation for the expected life of the photovoltaic system. Specifically dealing with commercial photovoltaic installations, this practice covers a broad spectrum of designs and applications and is focused on the proper process to ensure quality.  
1.2 This practice does not cover the electrical aspects of installation found in existing and national codes and does not replace or supersede details of electrical installation covered by the same. The practice does address the integration of best practices into design and construction.  
1.3 This practice shall not dictate specific design criteria or favor any product or technology.  
1.4 This practice shall be focused on the proper, documented process required to build and operate a quality PV plant as defined in Section 3.  
1.5 Integration of best practices shall be relevant to this standard and promote a mechanism for rapid evolution and reaction to changes or events. Conformity assessment for PV power plants is being developed through the IEC System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable Energy Applications (IECRE System). Sandia Labs has developed several model documents that may be adopted as acceptable consensus standards through other standards development organizations.  
1.6 The standard is divided into three key areas:  
1.6.1 Design, engineering, and construction of the PV plant. Systems should be designed with operation and maintenance (O&M) in mind. Further standards should be developed for building integrated or building mounted systems, modules with embedded power electronics, lightweight flexible modules, or other specific components.  
1.6.2 Commissioning, testing, and approval for power generation (Utility Witness Testing). Standards for owner acceptance will also be addressed.  
1.6.3 O&M of the PV plant including performance monitoring, periodic inspection, preventive maintenance, and periodic re-commissioning.  
1.7 Safety and hazard considerations unique to this application, such as worker fall protection, electrical exposure, accessibility of modules, and roof clearance (around the perimeter of the array) are addressed by other codes, standards, or authorities having jurisdiction.  
1.8 This practice provides guidelines for minimum processes required and must be used in conjunction with applicable codes and standards, government regulations, manufacturer requirements, and best practices.  
1.9 This practice is not intended to replace or supersede any other applicable local codes, standards o...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The spectral responsivity of a photovoltaic device is necessary for computing spectral mismatch parameter (see Test Method E973). Spectral mismatch is used in Test Method E948 to measure the performance of photovoltaic cells in simulated sunlight, in Test Methods E1036 to measure the performance of photovoltaic modules and arrays, in Test Method E1125 to calibrate photovoltaic primary reference cells using a tabular spectrum, and in Test Method E1362 to calibrate photovoltaic secondary reference cells. The spectral mismatch parameter can be computed using absolute or relative spectral responsivity data.  
5.2 This test method measures the differential spectral responsivity of a photovoltaic device. The procedure requires the use of white-light bias to enable the user to evaluate the dependence of the differential spectral responsivity on the intensity of light reaching the device. When such dependence exists, the overall spectral responsivity should be equivalent to the differential spectral responsivity at a light bias level somewhere between zero and the intended operating conditions of the device. Depending on the linearity response of the DUT over the intensity range up to the intended operating conditions, it may not be necessary to set up a very high light bias level.  
5.3 The spectral responsivity of a photovoltaic device is useful for understanding device performance and material characteristics.  
5.4 The procedure described herein is appropriate for use in either research and development applications or in product quality control by manufacturers.  
5.5 The reference photodetector’s calibration must be traceable to SI units through a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) spectral responsivity scale or other relevant radiometric scale.3 ,4 The calibration mode of the photodetector (irradiance or power) will affect the procedures used and the kinds of measurements that can be performed.  
5.6 This test method does not address issues...
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1.1 This test method is to be used to determine either the absolute or relative spectral responsivity response of a single-junction photovoltaic device.  
1.2 Because quantum efficiency is directly related to spectral responsivity, this test method may be used to determine the quantum efficiency of a single-junction photovoltaic device (see 10.10).  
1.3 This test method requires the use of a bias light.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The useful life of photovoltaic modules may depend on their ability to withstand periodic exposure to high wind forces, cyclic loads induced by specific site conditions or shipment methods, high loads caused by accumulated snow and ice on the module surface, and twisting deflections caused by mounting to non-planar surfaces or structures. The effects on the module may be physical or electrical, or both. Most importantly, the effects may compromise the safety of the module, particularly in high voltage applications, or where the public may be exposed to broken glass or other debris.  
4.2 These test methods describe procedures for mounting the test specimen, conducting the prescribed mechanical tests, and reporting the effects of the testing.  
4.2.1 The mounting and fastening method shall comply with the manufacturer's recommendations as closely as possible. If slots or multiple mounting holes are provided on the module frame for optional mounting point capability, the worst-case mounting positions shall be selected in order to subject the module to the maximum stresses.  
4.2.2 If an unframed module is being tested, the module shall be mounted in strict accordance with the manufacturer's instructions using the recommended attachment clips, brackets, fasteners or other hardware, and tightened to the specified torque.  
4.2.3 The test specimen is mounted on a test base in a planar manner (unless specified otherwise), simulating a field mounting arrangement in order to ensure that modules are tested in a configuration that is representative of their use in the field.  
4.2.4 During the twist test, the module is mounted in a manner simulating a non-planar field mounting where one of the fastening points is displaced to create an intentional twist of 1.2°.  
4.3 Data obtained during testing may be used to evaluate and compare the effects of the simulated environments on the test specimens. These test methods require analysis of both visible effects and electri...
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1.1 These test methods cover procedures for determining the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand the mechanical loads, stresses and deflections used to simulate, on an accelerated basis, high wind conditions, heavy snow and ice accumulation, and non-planar installation effects.  
1.1.1 A static load test to 2400 Pa is used to simulate wind loads on both module surfaces.  
1.1.2 A static load test to 5400 Pa is used to simulate heavy snow and ice accumulation on the module front surface.  
1.1.3 A twist test is used to simulate the non-planar mounting of a photovoltaic module by subjecting it to a twist angle of 1.2°.  
1.1.4 A cyclic load test of 10 000 cycles duration and peak loading to 1440 Pa is used to simulate dynamic wind or other flexural loading. Such loading might occur during shipment or after installation at a particular location.  
1.2 These test methods define photovoltaic test specimens and mounting methods, and specify parameters that must be recorded and reported.  
1.3 Any individual mechanical test may be performed singly, or may be combined into a test sequence with other mechanical or nonmechanical tests, or both. Certain preconditioning test methods such as annealing or light soaking may also be necessary or desirable as a part of such a sequence. However, the determination of such test sequencing and preconditioning is beyond the scope of these test methods.  
1.4 These test methods do not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of these test methods.  
1.5 These test methods do not apply to concentrator modules.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 The following precautionary caveat pertains only to the hazards portion, Section 6, and the warning statements, 7.5.3.2 and 7.6.3.2, of these test methods.This standard doe...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method is used to evaluate the applicability of other ASTM test methods to a photovoltaic device.  
5.2 The procedure described in this test method is intended to be used to determine the degree of linearity between the short-circuit current of a photovoltaic device and the irradiance level incident on the device. This test method can be used for other device parameters, provided the function passes through the origin.
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1.1 This test method determines the degree of linearity of a photovoltaic device parameter with respect to a test parameter, for example, short-circuit current with respect to irradiance.  
1.2 The linearity determined by this test method applies only at the time of testing, and implies no past or future performance level.  
1.3 This test method applies only to non-concentrator terrestrial photovoltaic devices.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The useful life of photovoltaic modules may depend on their ability to withstand repeated temperature cycling with varying amounts of moisture in the air. These test methods provide procedures for simulating the effects of cyclic temperature and humidity environments. An extended duration damp heat procedure is provided to simulate the effects of long term exposure to high humidity.  
4.2 The durations of the individual environmental tests are specified by use of this test method; however, commonly used durations are 50 and 200 thermal cycles, 10 humidity-freeze cycles, and 1000 h of damp heat exposure, as specified by module qualification standards such as IEC 61215 and IEC 61646. Longer durations can also be specified for extended duration module stress testing.  
4.3 Mounting—Test modules are mounted so that they are electrically isolated from each other, and in such a manner to allow free air circulation around the front and back surfaces of the modules.  
4.4 Current Biasing:  
4.4.1 During the thermal cycling procedure, test modules are operated without illumination and with a forward-bias current equal to the maximum power point current at standard reporting conditions (SRC, see Test Methods E1036) flowing through the module circuitry.  
4.4.2 The current biasing is intended to stress the module interconnections and solder bonds in ways similar to those that are believed to be responsible for fill-factor degradation in field-deployed modules.  
4.5 Effects of Test Procedures—Data generated using these test methods may be used to evaluate and compare the effects of simulated environment on test specimens. These test methods require determination of both visible effects and electrical performance effects.  
4.5.1 Effects on modules may vary from none to significant changes. Some physical changes in the module may be visible when there are no apparent electrical changes in the module. Similarly, electrical changes may occur with no visible changes in...
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1.1 These test methods provide procedures for stressing photovoltaic modules in simulated temperature and humidity environments. Environmental testing is used to simulate aging of module materials on an accelerated basis.  
1.2 Three individual environmental test procedures are defined by these test methods: a thermal cycling procedure, a humidity-freeze cycling procedure, and an extended duration damp heat procedure. Electrical biasing is utilized during the thermal cycling procedure to simulate stresses that are known to occur in field-deployed modules.  
1.3 These test methods define mounting methods for modules undergoing environmental testing, and specify parameters that must be recorded and reported.  
1.4 These test methods do not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of these test methods.  
1.5 Any of the individual environmental tests may be performed singly, or may be combined into a test sequence with other environmental or non-environmental tests, or both. Certain pre-conditioning tests such as annealing or light soaking may also be necessary or desirable as part of such a sequence. The determination of any such sequencing and pre-conditioning is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.6 These test procedures are limited in duration and therefore the results of these tests cannot be used to determine photovoltaic module lifetimes.  
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internati...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The design of a PV module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of hazard should the user come into contact with the electrical potential of the array. In addition, the insulation system provides a barrier to electrochemical corrosion, and insulation flaws can result in increased corrosion and reliability problems. This test method describes a procedure for verifying that the design and construction of the array provides adequate electrical isolation through normal installation and use. At no location on the array should the PV-generated electrical potential be accessible, with the obvious exception of the output leads. The isolation is necessary to provide for safe and reliable installation, use, and service of the PV system.  
5.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the array to provide protection from electrical hazards. Its primary use is to find insulation flaws that could be dangerous to persons who may come into contact with the array. Corrective action taken to address such flaws is beyond the scope of this test method.  
5.3 This procedure may be specified as part of a series of acceptance tests involving performance measurements and demonstration of functional requirements. Large arrays can be tested in smaller segments. The size of the array segment to be tested (called “circuit under test” in this test method) is usually selected at a convenient break point and sized such that the expected resistance or current reading is within the middle third of the meter's range.  
5.4 Insulation leakage resistance and insulation leakage current leakage are strong functions of array dimensions, ambient relative humidity, absorbed water vapor, and other factors. For this reason, it is the responsibility of the user of this test method to specify the minimum acceptable leakage resistance for this test.  
5.4.1 Even though a...
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1.1 This test method covers a procedure to determine the insulation resistance of a photovoltaic (PV) array (or its component strings), that is, the electrical resistance between the array's internal electrical components and is exposed, electrically conductive, non-current carrying parts and surfaces of the array.  
1.2 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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1.1 This specification specifies the recommended physical characteristics of the steel blades required for the surface cut test described in ANSI/UL 1703 (Section 24) and IEC 61730-2 (Paragraph 10.3).  
1.2 ANSI/UL 1703 and IEC 61730-2 are standards for photovoltaic module safety testing.  
1.3 This standard provides additional fabrication details for the surface cut test blades that are not provided in ANSI/UL 1703 or IEC 61730-2. Surface cut test blades that have out-of-tolerance corner radii or burrs are known to cause erroneous test results, either passes or failures.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 In many geographic areas, there is concern about the effect of falling hail upon photovoltaic modules. This test method may be used to determine the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand the impact forces of hailstones. In this test method, the ability of a photovoltaic module to withstand hail impact is related to its tested ability to withstand impact from ice balls. The effects of impact may be either physical or electrical degradation of the module.  
4.2 This test method describes a standard procedure for mounting the test specimen, conducting the impact test, and reporting the effects.  
4.2.1 The procedures for mounting the test specimen are provided to assure that modules are tested in a configuration that relates to their use in a photovoltaic array.  
4.2.2 Six or more impact locations are chosen to represent vulnerable sites on modules and general locations are listed in Table 1. Only a single impact is specified at each of the impact locations.  
4.2.3 Resultant speed is used to simulate the speed that may be reached by hail accompanied by wind. The resultant speed used in this test method is determined by vector addition of horizontal wind velocity plus vertical ice ball terminal velocity.  
4.2.4 Ice balls are used in this test method to simulate hailstones. Hailstones are variable in properties such as shape, density, and frangibility (for fracture characteristics, see Ref (10) in Practice E822). These properties affect factors such as the duration and magnitude of the impulsive force acting on the module and the area over which the impulse is distributed. Ice balls (with a density, frangibility, and terminal velocity near the range of hailstones) are the nearest hailstone approximation known at this time. Ice balls generally are harder and denser than hailstones; therefore, an ice ball simulates the worst case hailstone. Perhaps the major difference between ice balls and hailstones is that hailstones are more variable than ice balls....
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure for determining the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand impact forces of falling hail. Propelled ice balls are used to simulate falling hailstones.  
1.2 This test method defines test specimens and methods for mounting specimens, specifies impact locations on each test specimen, provides an equation for determining the velocity of any size ice ball, provides a method for impacting the test specimens with ice balls, provides a method for determining changes in electrical performance, and specifies parameters that must be recorded and reported.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable levels of ice ball impact resistance is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The size of the ice ball to be used in conducting this test is not specified. This test method can be used with various sizes of ice balls.  
1.5 This test method may be applied to concentrator and nonconcentrator modules.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific precautionary statements, refer to 5.1, Section 6, Note 8, and Note 9.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

ABSTRACT
This specification provides the performance requirements and parameters used for classifying both pulsed and steady state solar simulators intended for indoor testing of photovoltaic devices (solar cells or modules), according to their spectral match to a reference spectral irradiance, non-uniformity of spatial irradiance, and temporal instability of irradiance. The classification of a solar simulator is based on the size of the test plane, and does not provide any information about electrical measurement errors that are related to photovoltaic performance measurements obtained with a classified solar simulator.
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1.1 This classification provides means for assessing the suitability of solar simulators for indoor electrical performance testing of photovoltaic cells and modules, that is, for measurement current-voltage curves under artificial illumination.  
1.2 Solar simulators are classified according to their ability to reproduce a reference spectral irradiance distribution (see Tables G138 and E490), the uniformity of total irradiance across the test plane, and the stability of total irradiance over time.  
1.3 A solar simulator usually consists of three major components: (1) light source(s) and associated power supplies; (2) optics and filters required to modify the irradiance at the test plane; and (3) controls to operate the simulator, including irradiance adjustment.  
1.4 This classification is applicable to both pulsed and steady-state solar simulators.  
1.5 Many solar simulators also include integral data acquisition systems for photovoltaic performance testing; these data acquisition systems are outside of the scope of this classification.  
1.6 Light sources for weathering, durability, or conditioning of photovoltaic devices are outside of the scope of this classification.  
1.7 This classification is not applicable to solar simulators intended for testing photovoltaic concentrator devices.  
1.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 The following precautionary caveat pertains only to the hazards portion, Section 6, of this classification. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.10 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of hazard should the user come into contact with the electrical potential of the module. These test methods describe procedures for verifying that the design and construction of the module or system are capable of providing protection from shock through normal installation and use. At no location on the module should this electrical potential be accessible, with the obvious exception of the intended output leads.  
5.2 These test methods describe procedures for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from electrical hazards.  
5.3 These procedures may be specified as part of a series of qualification tests involving environmental exposure, mechanical stress, electrical overload, or accelerated life testing.  
5.4 These procedures are normally intended for use on dry modules; however, the test modules may be either wet or dry, as indicated by the appropriate protocol.  
5.5 These procedures may be used to verify module assembly on a production line.  
5.6 Insulation resistance and leakage current are strong functions of module dimensions, ambient relative humidity and absorbed water vapor, and the ground path continuity procedure is strongly affected by the location of contacts and test leads to the module frame and grounding points.  
5.6.1 For these reasons, it is the responsibility of the user of these test methods to specify the maximum acceptable leakage current for the dielectric voltage withstand test, and the maximum acceptable resistance for the ground path continuity procedure.  
5.6.2 Fifty μA has been commonly used as the maximum acceptable leakage current (see ANSI/UL 1703, Section 26.1), and 0.1 Ω has been commonly used as the maximum acceptable resistance.  
5.7 Some module designs may not use any external metallic components and thus lack a gro...
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1.1 These test methods cover procedures for (1) testing for current leakage between the electrical circuit of a photovoltaic module and its external components while a user-specified voltage is applied and (2) for testing for possible module insulation breakdown (dielectric voltage withstand test).  
1.2 A procedure is described for measuring the insulation resistance between the electrical circuit of a photovoltaic module and its external components (insulation resistance test).  
1.3 A procedure is provided for verifying that electrical continuity exists between the exposed external conductive surfaces of the module, such as the frame, structural members, or edge closures, and its grounding point (ground path continuity test).  
1.4 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 With the rapid expansion of the commercial photovoltaic market and the various standards and independent certification entities evolving, a consensus standard practice for the ICOMP process is needed to bring consistency to the market.  
4.2 Investors and insurance companies need consistency of product and standards to reduce costs of capital and underwriting. Use of a consensus standard practice is expected to improve consistency and reduce risk for investors.  
4.3 Photovoltaic systems operate in harsh environments that are not typical for electrical equipment and generally inconsistent with electrical contractor experience. Documented processes are needed to ensure performance and durability of the systems over the long operating life.  
4.4 The goal of this practice is to implement processes to improve safety and reliability, reduce lifecycle costs (commonly referred to as Levelized Cost of Energy or LCOE), and encourage the development of feedback loops for continuous improvement of results.  
4.5 This practice may be applied during any or all phases of the PV System Lifecycle (refer to Section 5). A record of the activities carried out according to this practice shall be included in the Report (refer to Section 8).
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1.1 This practice details the minimum requirements for installation, commissioning, operations, and maintenance processes to ensure safe and reliable power generation for the expected life of the photovoltaic system. Specifically dealing with commercial photovoltaic installations, this practice covers a broad spectrum of designs and applications and is focused on the proper process to ensure quality.  
1.2 This practice does not cover the electrical aspects of installation found in existing and national codes and does not replace or supersede details of electrical installation covered by the same. The practice does address the integration of best practices into design and construction.  
1.3 This practice shall not dictate specific design criteria or favor any product or technology.  
1.4 This practice shall be focused on the proper, documented process required to build and operate a quality PV plant as defined in Section 3.  
1.5 Integration of best practices shall be relevant to this standard and promote a mechanism for rapid evolution and reaction to changes or events. Conformity assessment for PV power plants is being developed through the IEC System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable Energy Applications (IECRE System). Sandia Labs has developed several model documents that may be adopted as acceptable consensus standards through other standards development organizations.  
1.6 The standard is divided into three key areas:  
1.6.1 Design, engineering, and construction of the PV plant. Systems should be designed with operation and maintenance (O&M) in mind. Further standards should be developed for building integrated or building mounted systems, modules with embedded power electronics, lightweight flexible modules, or other specific components.  
1.6.2 Commissioning, testing, and approval for power generation (Utility Witness Testing). Standards for owner acceptance will also be addressed.  
1.6.3 O&M of the PV plant including performance monitoring, periodic inspection, preventive maintenance, and periodic re-commissioning.  
1.7 Safety and hazard considerations unique to this application, such as worker fall protection, electrical exposure, accessibility of modules, and roof clearance (around the perimeter of the array) are addressed by other codes, standards, or authorities having jurisdiction.  
1.8 This practice provides guidelines for minimum processes required and must be used in conjunction with applicable codes and standards, government regulations, manufacturer requirements, and best practices.  
1.9 This practice is not intended to replace or supersede any other applicable local codes, standards o...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Because there are a number of choices in this test method that depend on different applications and system configurations, it is the responsibility of the user of this test method to specify the details and protocol of an individual system power measurement prior to the beginning of a measurement.  
5.2 Unlike device-level measurements that report performance at a fixed device temperature of 25°C, such as Test Methods E1036, this test method uses regression to a reference ambient air temperature.  
5.2.1 System power values calculated using this test method are therefore much more indicative of the power a system actually produces compared with reporting performance at a relatively cold device temperature such as 25°C.  
5.2.2 Using ambient temperature reduces the complexity of the data acquisition and analysis by avoiding the issues associated with defining and measuring the device temperature of an entire photovoltaic system.  
5.2.3 The user of this test method must select the time period over which system data are collected, and the averaging interval for the data collection within the constraints of 8.3.  
5.2.4 It is assumed that the system performance does not degrade or change during the data collection time period. This assumption influences the selection of the data collection period because system performance can have seasonal variations.  
5.3 The irradiance shall be measured in the plane of the modules under test. If multiple planes exist (particularly in the case of rolling terrain), then the plane or planes in which irradiance measurement will occur must be reported with the test results. In the case where this test method is to be used for acceptance testing of a photovoltaic system or reporting of photovoltaic system performance for contractual purposes, the plane or planes in which irradiance measurement will occur must be agreed upon by the parties to the test prior to the start of the test.
Note 1: In general, the irradiance measurem...
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1.1 This test method provides measurement and analysis procedures for determining the capacity of a specific photovoltaic system built in a particular place and in operation under natural sunlight.  
1.2 This test method is used for the following purposes:  
1.2.1 acceptance testing of newly installed photovoltaic systems,  
1.2.2 reporting of dc or ac system performance, and  
1.2.3 monitoring of photovoltaic system performance.  
1.3 This test method should not be used for:  
1.3.1 testing of individual photovoltaic modules for comparison to nameplate power ratings,  
1.3.2 testing of individual photovoltaic modules or systems for comparison to other photovoltaic modules or systems,  
1.3.3 testing of photovoltaic systems for the purpose of comparing the performance of photovoltaic systems located in different places.  
1.4 In this test method, photovoltaic system power is reported with respect to a set of reporting conditions (RC) including: solar irradiance in the plane of the modules, ambient temperature, and wind speed (see Section 6). Measurements under a variety of reporting conditions are allowed to facilitate testing and comparison of results.  
1.5 This test method assumes that the solar cell temperature is directly influenced by ambient temperature and wind speed; if not the regression results may be less meaningful.  
1.6 The capacity measured according to this test method should not be used to make representations about the energy generation capabilities of the system.  
1.7 This test method is not applicable to concentrator photovoltaic systems; as an alternative, Test Method E2527 should be considered for such systems.  
1.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of partial shadowing of the module(s) during operation. This test method describes a procedure for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate protection against the potential harmful effects of hot spots during normal installation and use.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from internal defects which could cause loss of electrical insulation or combustion hazards.  
4.3 Hot-spot heating occurs in a module when its operating current exceeds the reduced short-circuit current (Isc) of a shadowed or faulty cell or group of cells. When such a condition occurs, the affected cell or group of cells is forced into reverse bias and must dissipate power, which can cause overheating.
Note 1: The correct use of bypass diodes can prevent hot spot damage from occurring.  
4.4 Fig. 1 illustrates the hot-spot effect in a module of a series string of cells, one of which, cell  Y, is partially shadowed. The amount of electrical power dissipated in Y is equal to the product of the module current and the reverse voltage developed across Y. For any irradiance level, when the reverse voltage across  Y is equal to the voltage generated by the remaining (s-1) cells in the module, power dissipation is at a maximum when the module is short-circuited. This is shown in Fig. 1 by the shaded rectangle constructed at the intersection of the reverse I-V characteristic of Y with the image of the forward I-V characteristic of the (s-1) cells.
FIG. 1 Hot Spot Effect  
4.5 By-pass diodes, if present, as shown in Fig. 2, begin conducting when a series-connected string in a module is in reverse bias, thereby limiting the power dissipation in the reduced-output cell.  
FIG. 2 Bypass Diode Effect  
Note 2: If t...
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure to determine the ability of a photovoltaic (PV) module to endure the long-term effects of periodic “hot spot” heating associated with common fault conditions such as severely cracked or mismatched cells, single-point open circuit failures (for example, interconnect failures), partial (or non-uniform) shadowing or soiling. Such effects typically include solder melting or deterioration of the encapsulation, but in severe cases could progress to combustion of the PV module and surrounding materials.  
1.2 There are two ways that cells can cause a hot spot problem; either by having a high resistance so that there is a large resistance in the circuit, or by having a low resistance area (shunt) such that there is a high-current flow in a localized region. This test method selects cells of both types to be stressed.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The design of a photovoltaic module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of hazard should the user come into contact with the electrical potential of the module or system. In addition, the insulation system provides a barrier to electrochemical corrosion, and insulation flaws can result in increased corrosion and reliability problems. These test methods describe procedures for verifying that the design and construction of the module provides adequate electrical isolation through normal installation and use. At no location on the module should the PV generated electrical potential be accessible, with the obvious exception of the output leads. This isolation is necessary to provide for safe and reliable installation, use, and service of the photovoltaic system.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the module to provide protection from electrical hazards. Its primary use is to find insulation flaws that could be dangerous to persons who may come into contact with the module, especially when modules are wet. For example, these flaws could be small holes in the encapsulation that allow hazardous voltages to be accessible on the outside surface of a module after a period of high humidity.  
4.3 Insulation flaws in a module may only become detectable after the module has been wet for a certain period of time. For this reason, these procedures specify a minimum time a module must be immersed prior to the insulation integrity measurements.  
4.4 Electrical junction boxes attached to modules are often designed to allow liquid water, accumulated from condensed water vapor, to drain. Such drain paths are usually designed to permit water to exit, but not to allow impinging water from rain or water sprinklers to enter. It is important that all surfaces of junction boxes be thoroughly wetted by spraying during the tests to enable t...
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1.1 These test methods provide procedures to determine the insulation resistance of a photovoltaic (PV) module, i.e. the electrical resistance between the module's internal electrical components and its exposed, electrically conductive, non-current carrying parts and surfaces.  
1.2 The insulation integrity procedures are a combination of wet insulation resistance and wet dielectric voltage withstand test procedures.  
1.3 These procedures are similar to and reference the insulation integrity test procedures described in Test Methods E1462, with the difference being that the photovoltaic module under test is immersed in a wetting solution during the procedures.  
1.4 These test methods do not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of these test methods.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific precautionary statements, see Section 6.  
1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 Environmental stress tests, such as those listed in 1.2, are normally used to evaluate module designs prior to production or purchase. These test methods rely on performing electrical tests and visual inspections of modules before and after stress testing to determine the effects of the exposures.  
4.2 Effects of environmental stress testing may vary from no effects to significant changes. Some physical changes in the module may be visible when there are no measurable electrical changes. Similarly, electrical changes in the module may occur with no visible changes.  
4.3 It is the intent of this practice to provide a recognized procedure for performing visual inspections and to specify effects that should be reported.  
4.4 Many of these effects are subjective. In order to determine if a module has passed a visual inspection, the user of this practice must specify what changes or conditions are acceptable. The user may have to judge whether changes noted during an inspection will limit the useful life of a module design.
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1.1 This practice covers procedures and criteria for visual inspections of photovoltaic modules.  
1.2 Visual inspections of photovoltaic modules are normally performed before and after modules have been subjected to environmental, electrical, or mechanical stress testing, such as thermal cycling, humidity-freeze cycling, damp heat exposure, ultraviolet exposure, mechanical loading, hail impact testing, outdoor exposure, or other stress testing that may be part of photovoltaic module testing sequence.  
1.3 This practice does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Photovoltaic modules are electrical dc sources. dc sources have unique considerations with regards to arc formation and interruption, as once formed, the arc is not automatically interrupted by an alternating current. Solar modules are energized whenever modules in the string are illuminated by sunlight, or during fault conditions.  
5.2 With the rapid increase in the number of photovoltaic system installations, this guide attempts to increase awareness of methods to reduce the risk of fire from photovoltaic systems.  
5.3 This guide is intended for use by module manufacturers, panel assemblers, system designers, installers, and specifiers.  
5.4 This guide may be used to specify minimum requirements. It is not intended to capture all conditions or scenarios which could result in a fire.
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1.1 This guide describes basic principles of photovoltaic module design, panel assembly, and system installation to reduce the risk of fire originating from the photovoltaic source circuit.  
1.2 This guide is not intended to cover all scenarios which could lead to fire. It is intended to provide an assembly of generally-accepted practices.  
1.3 This guide is intended for systems which contain photovoltaic modules and panels as dc source circuits, although the recommended practices may also apply to systems utilizing ac modules.  
1.4 This guide does not cover fire suppression in the event of a fire involving a photovoltaic module or system.  
1.5 This guide does not cover fire emanating from other sources.  
1.6 This guide does not cover mechanical, structural, electrical, or other considerations key to photovoltaic module and system design and installation.  
1.7 This guide does not cover disposal of modules damaged by a fire, or other material hazards related to such modules.  
1.8 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.10 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice can be used to determine an expected capacity for an existing or a proposed photovoltaic system in a particular location during a specified period of time (see data collection period in Test Method E2848).  
5.2 The expected capacity calculated in accordance with this practice can be compared with the capacity measured according to Test Method E2848 when the RC are the same.  
5.3 The comparison of expected capacity and measured capacity can be used as a criterion for plant acceptance.  
5.4 The user of this practice must select the performance simulation period over which the reporting conditions and expected capacity will be derived. Seasonal variations will likely cause both of these to change with differing performance simulation periods.  
5.5 When this practice is used in conjunction with Test Method E2848, the performance simulation period and the data collection period must agree. If they do not agree, the comparison between expected and measured capacity will not be meaningful.  
5.6 Historical or measured5 plane-of-array irradiance, ambient air temperature and wind speed data can be used to select reporting conditions and calculate expected capacity. If historical data are used, the data collection period should match the time period of the measured data in terms of season and length.  
5.7 The simulated power output that is used to calculate the expected capacity should be derived from a performance model designed to represent the photovoltaic system which will be reported per Test Method E2848.
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1.1 This practice provides procedures for determining the expected capacity of a specific photovoltaic system in a specific geographical location that is in operation under natural sunlight during a specified period of time. The expected capacity is intended for comparison with the measured capacity determined by Test Method E2848.  
1.2 This practice is intended for use with Test Method E2848 as a procedure to select appropriate reporting conditions (RC), including solar irradiance in the plane of the modules, ambient temperature, and wind speed, needed for the photovoltaic system capacity measurement.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method provides a procedure for testing and reporting the electrical performance of photovoltaic cells.  
5.2 The test results may be used for comparison of cells among a group of similar cells or to compare diverse designs, such as different manufacturers' products. Repeated measurements of the same cell may be used to study changes in device performance.  
5.3 This test method determines the electrical performance of a photovoltaic cell at a single instant of time and the results do no imply any past or future performance.  
5.4 This test method requires a linear reference cell calibrated with respect to an appropriate reference spectral irradiance distribution, such as Tables E490, or G173. It is the responsibility of the user to determine which reference spectral irradiance distribution is appropriate for a particular application.
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1.1 This test method covers the determination of the electrical performance of a photovoltaic cell under simulated sunlight by means of a calibrated reference cell procedure.  
1.2 Electrical performance measurements are reported with respect to a select set of standard reporting conditions (SRC) (see Table 1) or to user-specified reporting conditions. In either case, the chosen reporting conditions are abbreviated as RC.  
1.2.1 The RC include the cell temperature, the total irradiance, and the reference spectral irradiance distribution.  
1.3 This test method is applicable only to photovoltaic cells with a linear short-circuit current versus total irradiance response up to and including the total irradiance used in the measurement.  
1.4 The cell parameters determined by this test method apply only at the time of test, and imply no past or future performance level.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The electrical output of a photovoltaic device is dependent on the spectral content of the illumination source, its intensity, and the device temperature. To make standardized, accurate measurements of the performance of photovoltaic devices under a variety of light sources when the intensity is measured with a calibrated reference cell, it is necessary to account for the error in the short-circuit current that occurs if the relative quantum efficiency of the reference cell is not identical to the quantum efficiency of the device to be tested. A similar error occurs if the spectral irradiance distribution of the test light source is not identical to the desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. These errors are accounted for by the spectral mismatch parameter (described in Test Method E973), which is a quantitative measure of the error in the short-circuit current measurement. It is the intent of this test method to provide a recognized procedure for calibrating, characterizing, and reporting the calibration data for primary photovoltaic reference cells using a tabular reference spectrum.  
5.2 The calibration of a reference cell is specific to a particular spectral irradiance distribution. It is the responsibility of the user to specify the applicable irradiance distribution, for example Tables G173. This test method allows calibration with respect to any tabular spectrum.  
5.2.1 Tables G173 do not provide spectral irradiance data for wavelengths longer than 4 μm, yet pyrheliometers (see 6.1) typically have response in the 4–10 μm region. To mitigate this discrepancy, the Tables G173 spectra must be extended with the data provided in Annex A2.  
5.3 A reference cell should be recalibrated at yearly intervals, or every six months if the cell is in continuous use outdoors.  
5.4 Recommended physical characteristics of reference cells can be found in Specification E1040.  
5.5 High-quality silicon primary reference cells are expected to be stable d...
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1.1 This test method is intended for calibration and characterization of primary terrestrial photovoltaic reference cells to a desired reference spectral irradiance distribution, such as Tables G173. The recommended physical requirements for these reference cells are described in Specification E1040. Reference cells are principally used in the determination of the electrical performance of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 Primary photovoltaic reference cells are calibrated in natural sunlight using the relative quantum efficiency of the cell, the relative spectral distribution of the sunlight, and a tabulated reference spectral irradiance distribution. Selection of the reference spectral irradiance distribution is left to the user.  
1.3 This test method requires the use of a pyrheliometer that is calibrated according to Test Method E816, which requires the use of a pyrheliometer that is traceable to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR). Therefore, reference cells calibrated according to this test method are traceable to the WRR.  
1.4 This test method is used to calibrate primary reference cells; Test Method E1362 may be used to calibrate secondary and non-primary reference cells (these terms are defined in Terminology E772).  
1.5 This test method applies only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that shows a linear dependence of its short-circuit current on irradiance over its intended range of use, as defined in Test Method E1143.  
1.6 This test method applies only to the calibration of a reference cell fabricated with a single photovoltaic junction.  
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the a...

ABSTRACT
This specification describes the physical requirements for primary and secondary nonconcentrator terrestrial phorovoltaic reference cells based on small-cell package design and module-package design. These requirements include those for product marking, reference cell material, window, configuration, electrical connectors, and temperature sensor.
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1.1 This specification describes the physical requirements for primary and secondary terrestrial nonconcentrator photovoltaic reference cells. A reference cell is defined as a device that meets the requirements of this specification and is calibrated in accordance with Test Method E1125 or Test Method E1362.  
1.2 Reference cells are used in the determination of the electrical performance of photovoltaic devices, as stated in Test Methods E948 and E1036.  
1.3 Two reference cell physical specifications are described:  
1.3.1 Small-Cell Package Design—A small, durable package with a low thermal mass, wide optical field-of-view, and standardized dimensions intended for photovoltaic devices up to 20 by 20 mm, and  
1.3.2 Module-Package Design—A package intended to simulate the optical and thermal properties of a photovoltaic module design, but electric connections are made to only one photovoltaic cell in order to eliminate problems with calibrating series and parallel connections of cells. Physical dimensions are not standardized.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The calculated error in the photovoltaic device current determined from the spectral mismatch parameter can be used to determine if a measurement will be within specified limits before the actual measurement is performed.  
5.2 The spectral mismatch parameter also provides a means of correcting the error in the measured device current due to spectral mismatch.  
5.2.1 The spectral mismatch parameter is formulated as the fractional error in the short-circuit current due to spectral and temperature differences.  
5.2.2 Error due to spectral mismatch is corrected by multiplying a reference cell’s measured short-circuit current by M , a technique used in Test Methods E948 and E1036.  
5.3 Because all spectral quantities appear in both the numerator and the denominator in the calculation of the spectral mismatch parameter (see 8.1), multiplicative calibration errors cancel, and therefore only relative quantities are needed (although absolute spectral quantities may be used if available).  
5.4 Temperature-dependent spectral mismatch is a more accurate method to correct photovoltaic current measurements compared with fixed-value temperature coefficients.3
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure for the determination of a spectral mismatch parameter used in performance testing of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 The spectral mismatch parameter is a measure of the error introduced in the testing of a photovoltaic device that is caused by the photovoltaic device under test and the photovoltaic reference cell having non-identical quantum efficiencies, as well as mismatch between the test light source and the reference spectral irradiance distribution to which the photovoltaic reference cell was calibrated.  
1.2.1 Examples of reference spectral irradiance distributions are Tables E490 or G173.  
1.3 The spectral mismatch parameter can be used to correct photovoltaic performance data for spectral mismatch error.  
1.4 Temperature-dependent quantum efficiencies are used to quantify the effects of temperature differences between test conditions and reporting conditions.  
1.5 This test method is intended for use with linear photovoltaic devices in which short-circuit is directly proportional to incident irradiance.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 It is the intent of these test methods to provide a recognized procedure for calibrating, characterizing, and reporting the calibration data for non-primary photovoltaic reference cells that are used during photovoltaic device performance measurements.  
5.2 The electrical output of photovoltaic devices is dependent on the spectral content of the source illumination and its intensity. To make accurate measurements of the performance of photovoltaic devices under a variety of light sources, it is necessary to account for the error in the short-circuit current that occurs if the relative spectral response of the reference cell is not identical to the spectral response of the device under test. A similar error occurs if the spectral irradiance distribution of the test light source is not identical to the desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. These errors are quantified with the spectral mismatch parameter M (Test Method E973).  
5.2.1 Test Method E973 requires four quantities for spectral mismatch calculations:
5.2.1.1 The quantum efficiency of the reference cell to be calibrated (see 7.1.1),
5.2.1.2 The quantum efficiency of the calibration source device (required as part of its calibration),
Note 1: See 10.10 of Test Method E1021 for the identity that converts spectral responsivity to quantum efficiency.
5.2.1.3 The spectral irradiance of the light source (measured with the spectral irradiance measurement equipment), and,
5.2.1.4 The reference spectral irradiance distribution to which the calibration source device was calibrated (see G173).  
5.2.2 Temperature Corrections—Test Method E973 provides means for temperature corrections to short-circuit current using the partial derivative of quantum efficiency with respect to temperature.  
5.3 A non-primary reference cell is calibrated in accordance with these test methods is with respect to the same reference spectral irradiance distribution as that of the calibration source device. Prima...
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1.1 These test methods cover calibration and characterization of non-primary terrestrial photovoltaic reference cells to a desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. The recommended physical requirements for these reference cells are described in Specification E1040. Reference cells are principally used in the determination of the electrical performance of a photovoltaic device.  
1.2 Non-primary reference cells are calibrated indoors using simulated sunlight or outdoors in natural sunlight by reference to a previously calibrated reference cell, which is referred to as the calibration source device.  
1.2.1 The non-primary calibration will be with respect to the same reference spectral irradiance distribution as that of the calibration source device.  
1.2.2 The calibration source device may be a primary reference cell calibrated in accordance with Test Method E1125, or a non-primary reference cell calibrated in accordance with these test methods.  
1.2.3 For the special case in which the calibration source device is a primary reference cell, the resulting non-primary reference cell is also referred to as a secondary reference cell.  
1.3 Non-primary reference cells calibrated according to these test methods will have the same radiometric traceability as that of the calibration source device. Therefore, if the calibration source device is traceable to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR, see Test Method E816), the resulting secondary reference cell will also be traceable to the WRR.  
1.4 These test methods apply only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that demonstrates a linear short-circuit current versus irradiance characteristic over its intended range of use, as defined in Test Method E1143.  
1.5 These test methods apply only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that has been fabricated using a single photovoltaic junction.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as stan...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The calculated error in the photovoltaic device current determined from the spectral mismatch parameter can be used to determine if a measurement will be within specified limits before the actual measurement is performed.  
5.2 The spectral mismatch parameter also provides a means of correcting the error in the measured device current due to spectral mismatch.  
5.2.1 The spectral mismatch parameter is formulated as the fractional error in the short-circuit current due to spectral and temperature differences.  
5.2.2 Error due to spectral mismatch is corrected by multiplying a reference cell’s measured short-circuit current by M , a technique used in Test Methods E948 and E1036.  
5.3 Because all spectral quantities appear in both the numerator and the denominator in the calculation of the spectral mismatch parameter (see 8.1), multiplicative calibration errors cancel, and therefore only relative quantities are needed (although absolute spectral quantities may be used if available).  
5.4 Temperature-dependent spectral mismatch is a more accurate method to correct photovoltaic current measurements compared with fixed-value temperature coefficients.3
SCOPE
1.1 This test method provides a procedure for the determination of a spectral mismatch parameter used in performance testing of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 The spectral mismatch parameter is a measure of the error introduced in the testing of a photovoltaic device that is caused by the photovoltaic device under test and the photovoltaic reference cell having non-identical quantum efficiencies, as well as mismatch between the test light source and the reference spectral irradiance distribution to which the photovoltaic reference cell was calibrated.  
1.2.1 Examples of reference spectral irradiance distributions are Tables E490 or G173.  
1.3 The spectral mismatch parameter can be used to correct photovoltaic performance data for spectral mismatch error.  
1.4 Temperature-dependent quantum efficiencies are used to quantify the effects of temperature differences between test conditions and reporting conditions.  
1.5 This test method is intended for use with linear photovoltaic devices in which short-circuit is directly proportional to incident irradiance.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

ABSTRACT
This specification provides the performance requirements and parameters used for classifying both pulsed and steady state solar simulators intended for indoor testing of photovoltaic devices (solar cells or modules), according to their spectral match to a reference spectral irradiance, non-uniformity of spatial irradiance, and temporal instability of irradiance. The classification of a solar simulator is based on the size of the test plane, and does not provide any information about electrical measurement errors that are related to photovoltaic performance measurements obtained with a classified solar simulator.
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1.1 This specification provides means for classifying solar simulators intended for indoor testing of photovoltaic devices (solar cells or modules), according to their spectral match to a reference spectral irradiance, non-uniformity of spatial irradiance, and temporal instability of irradiance.  
1.2 Testing of photovoltaic devices may require the use of solar simulators. Test Methods that require specific classification of simulators as defined in this specification include Test Methods E948, E1036, and E1362.  
1.3 This standard is applicable to both pulsed and steady state simulators and includes recommended test requirements used for classifying such simulators.  
1.4 A solar simulator usually consists of three major components: (1) light source(s) and associated power supply; (2) any optics and filters required to modify the output beam to meet the classification requirements in Section 4; and (3) the necessary controls to operate the simulator, adjust irradiance, etc.  
1.5 A light source that does not meet all of the defined requirements for classification presented in this document may not be referred to as a solar simulator.  
1.6 Spectral irradiance classifications are provided for Air Mass 1.5 direct and global (as defined in Tables G173), or Air Mass 0 (AM0, as defined in Standard E490).  
1.7 The classification of a solar simulator is based on the size of the test plane; simulators with smaller test plane areas have tighter specifications for non-uniformity of spatial irradiance.  
1.8 The data acquisition system may affect the ability to synchronize electrical measurements with variations in irradiance and therefore may be included in this specification. In all cases, the manufacturer must specify with the temporal instability classification: (1) how the classification was determined; and (2) the conditions under which the classification was determined.  
1.9 The classification of a solar simulator does not provide any information about electrical measurement errors that are related to photovoltaic performance measurements obtained with a classified solar simulator. Such errors are dependent on the actual instrumentation and procedures used.  
1.10 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.11 The following precautionary caveat pertains only to the hazards portion, Section 6, of this specification. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory requirements prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method is used to evaluate the applicability of other ASTM test methods to a photovoltaic device.  
5.2 The procedure described in this test method is intended to be used to determine the degree of linearity between the short-circuit current of a photovoltaic device and the irradiance level incident on the device. This test method can be used for other device parameters, provided the function passes through the origin.
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1.1 This test method determines the degree of linearity of a photovoltaic device parameter with respect to a test parameter, for example, short-circuit current with respect to irradiance.  
1.2 The linearity determined by this test method applies only at the time of testing, and implies no past or future performance level.  
1.3 This test method applies only to non-concentrator terrestrial photovoltaic devices.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 With the rapid expansion of the commercial photovoltaic market and the various standards and independent certification entities evolving, a consensus standard practice for the ICOMP process is needed to bring consistency to the market.  
4.2 Investors and insurance companies need consistency of product and standards to reduce costs of capital and underwriting. Use of a consensus standard practice is expected to improve consistency and reduce risk for investors.  
4.3 Photovoltaic systems operate in harsh environments that are not typical for electrical equipment and generally inconsistent with electrical contractor experience. Documented processes are needed to ensure performance and durability of the systems over the long operating life.  
4.4 The goal of this practice is to implement processes to improve safety and reliability, reduce lifecycle costs (commonly referred to as Levelized Cost of Energy or LCOE), and encourage the development of feedback loops for continuous improvement of results.  
4.5 This practice may be applied during any or all phases of the PV System Lifecycle (refer to Section 5). A record of the activities carried out according to this practice shall be included in the Report (refer to Section 8).
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1.1 This practice details the minimum requirements for installation, commissioning, operations, and maintenance processes to ensure safe and reliable power generation for the expected life of the photovoltaic system. Specifically dealing with commercial photovoltaic installations, this practice covers a broad spectrum of designs and applications and is focused on the proper process to ensure quality.  
1.2 This practice does not cover the electrical aspects of installation found in existing and national codes and does not replace or supersede details of electrical installation covered by the same. The practice does address the integration of best practices into design and construction.  
1.3 This practice shall not dictate specific design criteria or favor any product or technology.  
1.4 This practice shall be focused on the proper, documented process required to build and operate a quality PV plant as defined in Section 3.  
1.5 Integration of best practices shall be relevant to this standard and promote a mechanism for rapid evolution and reaction to changes or events. Conformity assessment for PV power plants is being developed through the IEC System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable Energy Applications (IECRE System). Sandia Labs has developed several model documents that may be adopted as acceptable consensus standards through other standards development organizations.  
1.6 The standard is divided into three key areas:  
1.6.1 Design, engineering, and construction of the PV plant. Systems should be designed with operation and maintenance (O&M) in mind. Further standards should be developed for building integrated or building mounted systems, modules with embedded power electronics, lightweight flexible modules, or other specific components.  
1.6.2 Commissioning, testing, and approval for power generation (Utility Witness Testing). Standards for owner acceptance will also be addressed.  
1.6.3 O&M of the PV plant including performance monitoring, periodic inspection, preventive maintenance, and periodic re-commissioning.  
1.7 Safety and hazard considerations unique to this application, such as worker fall protection, electrical exposure, accessibility of modules, and roof clearance (around the perimeter of the array) are addressed by other codes, standards, or authorities having jurisdiction.  
1.8 This practice provides guidelines for minimum processes required and must be used in conjunction with applicable codes and standards, government regulations, manufacturer requirements, and best practices.  
1.9 This practice is not intended to replace or supersede any other applicable local codes, standards o...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The design of a PV module or system intended to provide safe conversion of the sun's radiant energy into useful electricity must take into consideration the possibility of hazard should the user come into contact with the electrical potential of the array. In addition, the insulation system provides a barrier to electrochemical corrosion, and insulation flaws can result in increased corrosion and reliability problems. This test method describes a procedure for verifying that the design and construction of the array provides adequate electrical isolation through normal installation and use. At no location on the array should the PV-generated electrical potential be accessible, with the obvious exception of the output leads. The isolation is necessary to provide for safe and reliable installation, use, and service of the PV system.  
5.2 This test method describes a procedure for determining the ability of the array to provide protection from electrical hazards. Its primary use is to find insulation flaws that could be dangerous to persons who may come into contact with the array. Corrective action taken to address such flaws is beyond the scope of this test method.  
5.3 This procedure may be specified as part of a series of acceptance tests involving performance measurements and demonstration of functional requirements. Large arrays can be tested in smaller segments. The size of the array segment to be tested (called “circuit under test” in this test method) is usually selected at a convenient break point and sized such that the expected resistance or current reading is within the middle third of the meter's range.  
5.4 Insulation leakage resistance and insulation leakage current leakage are strong functions of array dimensions, ambient relative humidity, absorbed water vapor, and other factors. For this reason, it is the responsibility of the user of this test method to specify the minimum acceptable leakage resistance for this test.  
5.4.1 Even though a...
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1.1 This test method covers a procedure to determine the insulation resistance of a photovoltaic (PV) array (or its component strings), that is, the electrical resistance between the array's internal electrical components and is exposed, electrically conductive, non-current carrying parts and surfaces of the array.  
1.2 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The electrical output of a photovoltaic device is dependent on the spectral content of the illumination source, its intensity, and the device temperature. To make standardized, accurate measurements of the performance of photovoltaic devices under a variety of light sources, it is necessary to account for the error in the short-circuit current that occurs if the relative spectral response of the reference cell is not identical to the spectral response of the device to be tested. A similar error occurs if the spectral irradiance distribution of the test light source is not identical to the desired reference spectral irradiance distribution. These errors are accounted for by the spectral mismatch parameter (described in Test Method E973), a quantitative measure of the error in the short-circuit current measurement. It is the intent of this test method to provide a recognized procedure for calibrating, characterizing, and reporting the calibration data for primary photovoltaic reference cells using a tabular reference spectrum.  
5.2 The calibration of a reference cell is specific to a particular spectral irradiance distribution. It is the responsibility of the user to specify the applicable irradiance distribution, for example Tables G173. This test method allows calibration with respect to any tabular spectrum.  
5.3 A reference cell should be recalibrated at yearly intervals, or every six months if the cell is in continuous use outdoors.  
5.4 Recommended physical characteristics of reference cells can be found in Specification E1040.  
5.5 Because silicon solar cells made on p-type substrates are susceptible to a loss of Isc upon initial exposure to light, it is required that newly manufactured reference cells be light soaked at an irradiance level greater than 850 W/m2 for 2 h prior to initial characterization in Section 7.
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1.1 This test method is intended to be used for calibration and characterization of primary terrestrial photovoltaic reference cells to a desired reference spectral irradiance distribution, such as Tables G173. The recommended physical requirements for these reference cells are described in Specification E1040. Reference cells are principally used in the determination of the electrical performance of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 Primary photovoltaic reference cells are calibrated in natural sunlight using the relative spectral response of the cell, the relative spectral distribution of the sunlight, and a tabulated reference spectral irradiance distribution.  
1.3 This test method requires the use of a pyrheliometer that is calibrated according to Test Method E816, which requires the use of a pyrheliometer that is traceable to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR). Therefore, reference cells calibrated according to this test method are traceable to the WRR.  
1.4 This test method is a technique that may be used instead of the procedures found in Test Method E1362. This test method offers convenience in its ability to characterize a reference cell under any spectrum for which tabulated data are available. The selection of the specific reference spectrum is left to the user.  
1.5 This test method applies only to the calibration of a photovoltaic cell that shows a linear dependence of its short-circuit current on irradiance over its intended range of use, as defined in Test Method E1143.  
1.6 This test method applies only to the calibration of a reference cell fabricated with a single photovoltaic junction.  
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The calculated error in the photovoltaic device current determined from the spectral mismatch parameter can be used to determine if a measurement will be within specified limits before the actual measurement is performed.  
5.2 The spectral mismatch parameter also provides a means of correcting the error in the measured device current due to spectral mismatch.  
5.2.1 The spectral mismatch parameter is formulated as the fractional error in the short-circuit current due to spectral differences.4,5  
5.2.2 Error due to spectral mismatch can be corrected by dividing the measured photovoltaic cell current by M , a procedure used in Test Methods E948 and E1036.
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1.1 This test method covers a procedure for the determination of a spectral mismatch parameter used in performance testing of photovoltaic devices.  
1.2 The spectral mismatch parameter is a measure of the error, introduced in the testing of a photovoltaic device, caused by mismatch between the spectral responses of the photovoltaic device and the photovoltaic reference cell, as well as mismatch between the test light source and the reference spectral irradiance distribution to which the photovoltaic reference cell was calibrated. Examples of reference spectral irradiance distributions are Tables E490 or G173.  
1.3 The spectral mismatch parameter can be used to correct photovoltaic performance data for spectral mismatch error.  
1.4 This test method is intended for use with linear photovoltaic devices.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 In a series-connected multijunction PV device, the incident total and spectral irradiance determines which component cell will generate the smallest photocurrent and thus limit the current through the entire series-connected device. This current-limiting behavior also affects the fill factor of the device. Because of this, special techniques are needed to measure the correct I-V characteristics of multijunction devices under the desired reporting conditions (see Test Methods E1036).  
4.2 These test methods use a numerical parameter called the current balance which is a measure of how well the test conditions replicate the desired reporting conditions. When the current balance deviates from unity by more than 0.03, the uncertainty of the measurement may be increased.  
4.3 The effects of current limiting in individual component cells can cause problems for I-V curve translations to different temperature and irradiance conditions, such as the translations recommended in Test Methods E1036. For example, if a different component cell becomes the limiting cell as the irradiance is varied, a discontinuity in the current versus irradiance characteristic may be observed. For this reason, it is recommended that I-V characteristics of multijunction devices be measured at temperature and irradiance conditions close to the desired reporting conditions.  
4.4 Some multijunction devices have more than two terminals which allow electrical connections to each component cell. In these cases, the special techniques for spectral response measurements are not needed because the component cells can be measured individually. However, these I-V techniques are still needed if the device is intended to be operated as a two-terminal device.  
4.5 Using these test methods, the spectral response is typically measured while the individual component cell under test is illuminated at levels that are less than Eo. Nonlinearity of the spectral response may cause the measured results to dif...
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1.1 These test methods provide special techniques needed to determine the electrical performance and spectral response of two-terminal, multijunction photovoltaic (PV) devices, both cell and modules.  
1.2 These test methods are modifications and extensions of the procedures for single-junction devices defined by Test Methods E948, E1021, and E1036.  
1.3 These test methods do not include temperature and irradiance corrections for spectral response and current-voltage (I-V) measurements. Procedures for such corrections are available in Test Methods E948, E1021, and E1036.  
1.4 These test methods may be applied to cells and modules intended for concentrator applications.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 In many geographic areas, there is concern about the effect of falling hail upon photovoltaic modules. This test method may be used to determine the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand the impact forces of hailstones. In this test method, the ability of a photovoltaic module to withstand hail impact is related to its tested ability to withstand impact from ice balls. The effects of impact may be either physical or electrical degradation of the module.  
4.2 This test method describes a standard procedure for mounting the test specimen, conducting the impact test, and reporting the effects.  
4.2.1 The procedures for mounting the test specimen are provided to assure that modules are tested in a configuration that relates to their use in a photovoltaic array.  
4.2.2 Six or more impact locations are chosen to represent vulnerable sites on modules and general locations are listed in Table 1. Only a single impact is specified at each of the impact locations.  
4.2.3 Resultant speed is used to simulate the speed that may be reached by hail accompanied by wind. The resultant speed used in this test method is determined by vector addition of horizontal wind velocity plus vertical ice ball terminal velocity.  
4.2.4 Ice balls are used in this test method to simulate hailstones. Hailstones are variable in properties such as shape, density, and frangibility (for fracture characteristics, see Ref (10) in Practice E822). These properties affect factors such as the duration and magnitude of the impulsive force acting on the module and the area over which the impulse is distributed. Ice balls (with a density, frangibility, and terminal velocity near the range of hailstones) are the nearest hailstone approximation known at this time. Ice balls generally are harder and denser than hailstones; therefore, an ice ball simulates the worst case hailstone. Perhaps the major difference between ice balls and hailstones is that hailstones are more variable than ice balls....
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure for determining the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand impact forces of falling hail. Propelled ice balls are used to simulate falling hailstones.  
1.2 This test method defines test specimens and methods for mounting specimens, specifies impact locations on each test specimen, provides an equation for determining the velocity of any size ice ball, provides a method for impacting the test specimens with ice balls, provides a method for determining changes in electrical performance, and specifies parameters that must be recorded and reported.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable levels of ice ball impact resistance is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The size of the ice ball to be used in conducting this test is not specified. This test method can be used with various sizes of ice balls.  
1.5 This test method may be applied to concentrator and nonconcentrator modules.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific precautionary statements, refer to 5.1, Section 6, Note 8, and Note 9.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The useful life of photovoltaic modules deployed in marine applications (such as floating aids-to-navigation) may depend on the ability to withstand repeated exposure to salt atmosphere, immersion in seawater, and the temperature changes associated with seawater splash falling on modules operating in sunlight. The effects of these exposures may be physical or electrical changes in the module, or both.  
4.2 This test method describes a procedure for positioning the test specimen, conducting a cyclical combined pressure, immersion, and temperature (PIT) test, and reporting the results. It also references methods for conducting module electrical performance and insulation integrity tests.  
4.3 Data generated by this test method may be used to evaluate and compare the effects of a simulated marine environment on test specimens. This test method requires recording of visible effects as well as electrical performance.  
4.3.1 Effects on modules may vary from none to significant changes. Some physical changes in the module may be visible when there are no apparent electrical changes in the module. Similarly, electrical changes may occur with no visible changes in the module.
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1.1 This test method provides a procedure for determining the ability of photovoltaic modules to withstand repeated immersion or splash exposure by seawater as might be encountered when installed in a marine environment, such as a floating aid-to-navigation. A combined environmental cycling exposure with modules repeatedly submerged in simulated saltwater at varying temperatures and under repetitive pressurization provides an accelerated basis for evaluation of aging effects of a marine environment on module materials and construction.  
1.2 This test method defines photovoltaic module test specimens and requirements for positioning modules for test, references suitable methods for determining changes in electrical performance and characteristics, and specifies parameters which must be recorded and reported.  
1.3 This test method does not establish pass or fail levels. The determination of acceptable or unacceptable results is beyond the scope of this test method.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.