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ASTM D2488-17e1

(Practice)

Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedures)

Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedures)

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The descriptive information required in this practice can be used to describe a soil to aid in the evaluation of its significant properties for engineering use.  
5.2 The descriptive information required in this practice should be used to supplement the classification of a soil as determined by Test Method D2487.  
5.3 This practice may be used in identifying soils using the classification group symbols and names as prescribed in Test Method D2487. Since the names and symbols used in this practice to identify the soils are the same as those used in Test Method D2487, it shall be clearly stated in reports and all other appropriate documents, that the classification symbol and name are based on visual-manual procedures.  
5.4 This practice is to be used for identification of soils in the field, laboratory, or any other location where soil samples are inspected and described.  
5.5 This practice may be used to group similar soil samples to reduce the number of laboratory tests necessary for positive soil classification.
Note 2: The ability to describe and identify soils correctly is learned more readily under the guidance of experienced personnel, but it may also be acquired systematically by comparing numerical laboratory test results for typical soils of each type with their visual and manual characteristics.  
5.6 Soil samples from a given boring, test pit or location which appear to have similar characteristics are not required to follow all of the procedures in this practice, providing at least one sample is completely described and identified. These samples may follow only the necessary procedures to determine they are “similar” and shall be labeled as such.  
5.7 This practice may be used in combination with Practice D4083 when working with frozen soils.
Note 3: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that mee...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers procedures for the description of soils for engineering purposes.  
1.2 This practice also describes a procedure for identifying soils, at the option of the user, based on the classification system described in Test Method D2487. The identification is based on visual examination and manual tests. It shall be clearly stated in reporting, the soil identification is based on visual-manual procedures.  
1.2.1 When precise classification of soils for engineering purposes is required, the procedures outlined in Test Method D2487 shall be used.  
1.2.2 In this practice, the identification procedures assigning a group symbol and name are limited to soil particles smaller than 3 in. (75 mm).  
1.2.3 The identification portion of this practice is limited to naturally occurring soils. Specimens used for identification may be either intact or disturbed.  
Note 1: This practice may be used as a descriptive system applied to such materials as shale, claystone, shells, crushed rock, etc. (see Appendix X2).  
1.3 The descriptive information in this practice may be used with other soil classification systems or for materials other than naturally occurring soils.  
1.4 Units—The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are rationalized conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard. The sieve designations are identified using the “alternative” system in accordance with Practice E11.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific precautionary statements see Section 8.  
1.6 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or...

General Information

Status
Published
Publication Date
14-Jul-2017
ICS
93.020 - Earthworks. Excavations. Foundation construction. Underground works
Technical Committee
D18 - Soil and Rock
Drafting Committee
D18.07 - Identification and Classification of Soils
Current Stage
Ref Project

Relations

Refers
ASTM D4427-13(2017) - Standard Classification of Peat Samples by Laboratory Testing
Effective Date
01-May-2017
Refers
ASTM D3740-19 - Standard Practice for Minimum Requirements for Agencies Engaged in Testing and/or Inspection of Soil and Rock as Used in Engineering Design and Construction
Effective Date
01-Oct-2019
Refers
ASTM D2487-17 - Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
Effective Date
15-Dec-2017
Refers
ASTM D2487-17e1 - Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
Effective Date
15-Dec-2017
Refers
ASTM D653-14 - Standard Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained Fluids
Effective Date
01-Aug-2014

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ASTM D2488-17e1 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedures)ASTM D2488-17e1 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedures)
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ASTM D2488-17e1 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedures)
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This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
´1
Designation:D2488 −17
Standard Practice for
Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual
1
Procedures)
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D2488; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.
1
ε NOTE—Editorially corrected Fig. 2 in March 2018.
1. Scope* responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
1.1 This practice covers procedures for the description of
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
soils for engineering purposes.
For specific precautionary statements see Section 8.
1.2 This practice also describes a procedure for identifying
1.6 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing
soils, at the option of the user, based on the classification
one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace
system described in Test Method D2487. The identification is
education or experience and should be used in conjunction
based on visual examination and manual tests. It shall be
with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may
clearly stated in reporting, the soil identification is based on
be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not
visual-manual procedures.
intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which
1.2.1 When precise classification of soils for engineering
the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged,
purposes is required, the procedures outlined in Test Method
nor should this document be applied without consideration of
D2487 shall be used.
a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the
1.2.2 Inthispractice,theidentificationproceduresassigning
title of this document means only that the document has been
a group symbol and name are limited to soil particles smaller
approved through the ASTM consensus process.
than 3 in. (75 mm).
1.7 This international standard was developed in accor-
1.2.3 The identification portion of this practice is limited to
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
naturally occurring soils. Specimens used for identification
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
may be either intact or disturbed.
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
NOTE 1—This practice may be used as a descriptive system applied to
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
suchmaterialsasshale,claystone,shells,crushedrock,etc.(seeAppendix
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
X2).
1.3 The descriptive information in this practice may be used
2. Referenced Documents
withothersoilclassificationsystemsorformaterialsotherthan
2
2.1 ASTM Standards:
naturally occurring soils.
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
1.4 Units—The values stated in inch-pound units are to be
Fluids
regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are
D1452 Practice for Soil Exploration and Sampling byAuger
rationalized conversions to SI units that are provided for
Borings
information only and are not considered standard. The sieve
D1586 Test Method for Standard PenetrationTest (SPT) and
designations are identified using the “alternative” system in
Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils
accordance with Practice E11.
D1587 Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Fine-
Grained Soils for Geotechnical Purposes
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the
D2113 Practice for Rock Core Drilling and Sampling of
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
Rock for Site Exploration
1
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and
Rock and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.07 on Identification and
2
Classification of Soils. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved July 15, 2017. Published August 2017. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 1966. Last previous edition approved in 2009 as D2488 – 09a. DOI: Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
10.1520/D2488-17E01. the ASTM website.
*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
1

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1.1 This practice presents a procedure for calculating the unit weights and water contents of soils containing oversize particles when the data are known for the soil fraction with the oversize particles removed.  
1.2 This practice also can be used to calculate the unit weights and water contents of soil fractions when the data are known for the total soil sample containing oversize particles.  
1.3 This practice is based on tests performed on soils and soil-rock mixtures in which the portion considered oversize is that fraction of the material retained on the 4.75-mm [No. 4] sieve. Based on these tests, this practice is applicable to soils and soil-rock mixtures in which up to 40 % of the material is retained on the 4.75-mm [No. 4] sieve. The practice also is considered valid when the oversize fraction is that portion retained on some other sieve, but the limiting percentage of oversize particles for which the correction is valid may be lower. However, the practice is considered valid for materials having up to 30 % oversize particles when the oversize fraction is that portion retained on the 19-mm [3/4-in.] sieve.  
1.4 The factor controlling the maximum permissible percentage of oversize particles is whether interference between the oversize particles affects the unit weight of the finer fraction. For some gradations, this interference may begin to occur at lower percentages of oversize particles, so the limiting percentage must be lower for these materials to avoid inaccuracies in the computed correction. The person or agency using this practice shall determine whether a lower percentage is to be used.  
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 By definition, the tensile strength is obtained by the direct tensile test. However, the direct tensile test is difficult and expensive for routine application. The splitting tensile test appears to offer a desirable alternative because it is much simpler and inexpensive. Furthermore, engineers involved in rock mechanics design usually deal with complex stress fields, including various combinations of compressive and tensile stress fields. Under such conditions, the tensile strength should be obtained with the presence of compressive stresses to be representative of the field conditions.  
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1.1 This test method covers testing apparatus, specimen preparation, and testing procedures for determining the splitting tensile strength of rock by diametral line compression of disk shaped specimens.
Note 1: The tensile strength of rock determined by tests other than the straight pull test is designated as the “indirect” tensile strength and, specifically, the value obtained in Section 9 of this test is termed the “splitting” tensile strength. This test method is also sometimes referred to as the Brazilian test method.  
1.2 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to inch-pound units, which are provided for information only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this test method.  
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Where sulfates are suspected, subgrade soils should be tested as an integral part of a geotechnical evaluation because the possibility that sulfate induced heave may occur if calcium containing stabilizers are used to improve the soils and sulfate reactions may also cause deterioration in concrete structures. When planning to treat a soil used in construction with lime, testing the soil for water soluble sulfates prior to treatment becomes very important (Note 2).  
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1.1 This test method covers determination of the strength and stress-strain relationships of a cylindrical specimen of either intact, compacted, or remolded cohesive soil. Specimens are subjected to a confining fluid pressure in a triaxial chamber. No drainage of the specimen is permitted during the application of the confining fluid pressure or during the compression phase of the test. The specimen is axially loaded at a constant rate of axial deformation (strain controlled).  
1.2 This test method provides data for determining undrained strength properties and stress-strain relations for soils. This test method provides for the measurement of the total stresses applied to the specimen, that is, the stresses are not corrected for pore-water pressure.
Note 1: The determination of the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils is covered by Test Method D2166/D2166M.
Note 2: The determination of the consolidated, undrained strength of cohesive soils with pore pressure measurement is covered by Test Method D4767.  
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The purpose of this test method is to obtain values for comparison with other test values to verify uniformity of materials or the effects of controllable variables, in grout-soil compositions.  
5.2 This test method is similar, in principle, to Test Method D2166/D2166M, but is not intended for determination of strength parameters to be used in design. Such values are more properly obtained from long-term triaxial tests.
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1.1 This test method covers the determination of the short-term unconfined compressive strength index of chemically grouted soils, using displacement-controlled application of test load.  
1.2 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are provided for information only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.2.1 It is common practice in the engineering/construction profession to concurrently use pounds to represent both a unit of mass (lbm) and of force (lbf). This practice implicitly combines two separate systems of units; the absolute and the gravitational systems. It is scientifically undesirable to combine the use of two separate sets of inch-pound units within a single standard. As stated, this standard includes the gravitational system of inch-pound units and does not use/present the slug unit of mass. However, the use of balances and scales recording pounds of mass (lbm) or recording density in lbm/ft3 shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.3 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026, unless superseded by this test method.  
1.3.1 For purposes of comparing a measured or calculated value(s) with specified limits, the measured or calculated value(s) shall be rounded to the nearest decimal of significant digits in the specified limit.  
1.3.2 The procedures used to specify how data are collected/recorded or calculated in the standard are regarded as the industry standard. In addition, they are representative of the significant digits that generally should be retained. The procedures used do not consider material variation, purpose for obtaining the data, special purpose studies, or any considerations for the user’s objectives; and it is common practice to increase or reduce significant digits of reported data to be commensurate with these considerations. It is beyond the scope of this standard to consider significant digits used in analysis methods for engineering design.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
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ASTM D4452/D4452M-22(Practice)
Standard Practice for X-Ray Radiography of Soil Samples

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Many geotechnical tests require the utilization of intact, representative samples of soil. The quality of these samples depends on many factors. Many of the samples obtained by intact sampling methods have inherent anomalies. Sampling procedures cause disturbances of varying types and intensities. These anomalies and disturbances, however, are not always readily detectable by visual inspection of the intact samples before or after testing. Often test results would be enhanced if the presence and the extent of these anomalies and disturbances are known before testing or before destruction of the sample by testing. Such determinations assist the user in detecting flaws in sampling methods, the presence of natural or induced shear planes, and the presence of natural intrusions, such as gravels or shells at critical regions in the samples, the presence of sand and silt seams, and the intensity of disturbances caused by sampling.  
5.2 X-ray radiography provides the user with a picture of the internal massive structure of the soil sample, regardless of whether the soil is X-rayed within or without the sampling tube. X-ray radiography assists the user in identifying the following:  
5.2.1 Appropriateness of sampling methods used.  
5.2.2 Effects of sampling in terms of the disturbances caused by the turning of the edges of various thin layers in varved soils, large disturbances caused in soft soils, shear planes induced by sampling, or extrusion, or both, effects of overdriving of samplers, the presence of cuttings in sampling tubes, or the effects of using bent, corroded, or nonstandard tubes for sampling.  
5.2.3 Naturally occurring fissures, shear planes, etc.  
5.2.4 The presence of intrusions within the sample, such as calcareous nodules, gravel, or shells.  
5.2.5 Sand and silt seams, organic matter, large voids, and channels developed by natural or artificial leaching of soil components.
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SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers the determination of the quality of soil samples in thin wall tubes or of extruded soil cores by X-ray radiography.  
1.2 This practice enables the user to determine the effects of sampling and natural variations within samples as identified by the extent of the relative penetration of X-rays through soil samples.  
1.3 This practice can be used to X-ray soil cores (or observe their features on a fluoroscope) in thin wall tubes or liners ranging from approximately 50 to 150 mm [2 to 6 in.] in diameter. X-rays of samples in the larger diameter tubes provide a radiograph of major features of soils and disturbances, such as large scale bending of edges of varved clays, shear planes, the presence of large concretions, silt and sand seams thicker than 6 mm [1/4 in.], large lumps of organic matter, and voids or other types of intrusions. X-rays of the smaller diameter cores provide higher resolution of soil features and disturbances, such as small concretions (3 mm [1/8 in.] diameter or larger), solution channels, slight bending of edges of varved clays, thin silt or sand seams, narrow solution channels, plant root structures, and organic matter. The X-raying of samples in thin wall tubes or liners requires minimal preparation.  
1.4 Greater detail and resolution of various features of the soil can be obtained by X-raying extruded soil cores, as compared to samples in metal tubes. The method used for X-raying soil cores is the same as that for tubes and liners, except that extruded cores have to be handled with extreme care and have to be placed in sample troughs (similar to Fig. 2) before X-raying. This practice should be used only when natural water content or other intact soil characteristics are irrelevant to the end use of the sample.  
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Compression testing of soil-lime specimens is performed to determine unconfined compressive strength of the cured soil-lime-water mixture to determine the suitability of the mixture for uses such as in pavement bases and subbases, stabilized subgrades, and structural fills.  
5.2 Compressive strength data are used in soil-lime mix design procedures: (a) to determine if a soil will achieve a significant strength increase with the addition of lime; (b) to group soil-lime mixtures into strength classes; (c) to study the effects of variables such as lime percentage, unit weight, water content, curing time, curing temperature, etc.; and (d) to estimate other engineering properties of soil-lime mixtures.  
5.3 Lime is generally classified as calcitic or dolomitic. Usually in soil stabilization, high-calcium lime [CaO] or dolomitic lime [CaO + MgO] are used. The lime is transformed from oxide to hydroxide form [[Ca(OH)2 or [Ca(OH)2 + Mg(OH)2]] by the addition of water in the soil, a slurry tank, or at a manufacturing facility. Lime may increase the strength of cohesive soil. The type of lime in combination with soil type influences the resulting compressive strength.
Note 2: The agency performing this test method can be evaluated in accordance with Practice D3740. Notwithstanding statements on precision and bias contained in this method: The precision of this test method is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it and the suitability of the equipment and facility used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing. Users of this test method are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not, in itself, ensure reliable testing. Reliable testing depends on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of these factors.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers procedures for preparing, curing, and testing laboratory-compacted specimens of soil-lime and other lime-treated materials (Note 1) for determining unconfined compressive strength. Depending on the diameter to height ratio, two procedures for determining the unconfined compressive strength of compacted soil-lime mixtures have been developed for specimens prepared at the maximum unit weight and optimum water content, or for specimens prepared at other target unit weight and water content levels. Other applications are given in Section 5 on Significance and Use.
Note 1: Lime-based products other than commercial quicklime and hydrated lime are also used in the lime treatment of fine-grained cohesive soils. Lime kiln dust (LKD) is collected from the kiln exhaust gases by cyclone, electrostatic, or baghouse-type collection systems. Some lime producers hydrate various blends of LKD plus quicklime to produce a lime-based product.  
1.2 Cored specimens of soil-lime should be tested in accordance with Test Methods D2166/D2166M.  
1.3 Two alternative procedures are provided:  
1.3.1 Procedure A describes procedures for preparing and testing compacted soil-lime specimens having height-to-diameter ratios between 2.00 and 2.50. This test method provides the standard measure of compressive strength.  
1.3.2 Procedure B describes procedures for preparing and testing compacted soil-lime specimens using Test Methods D698 compaction equipment and molds commonly available in most soil testing laboratories. Procedure B is considered to provide relative measures of individual specimens in a suite of test specimens rather than standard compressive strength values. Because of the lesser height-to-diameter ratio (1.15) of the cylinders, compressive strength determined by Procedure B will normally be greater than that by Procedure A.  
1.3.3 Results of unconfined compressive strength tests using Procedure B should not be directly compared to those obtained using Procedure A.  
1.4 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guideline...

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ASTM
ASTM D4381/D4381M-22(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Sand Content by Volume of Construction Slurries

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method is used to determine the percentage of sand by volume in construction slurry. The significance of this test method mainly relates to construction slurries used for concrete wall and drilled piers construction. The range of measurement is too limited for use in applications where the sand content is intended to be greater than 20 %, such as in the cases of cement bentonite or soil bentonite walls.  
5.2 A high sand content in the construction slurry is abrasive for construction plant such as pumps, and is furthermore adverse to the formation of a filter cake in applications where bentonite fluid is used to stabilize an excavation.
Note 1: The quality of the result produced by this standard depends on the competence of the personnel performing it and the suitability of the equipment and facilities being used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing, sampling, inspection, etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself ensure reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the sand content of bentonitic slurries used in slurry construction techniques. This test method has been modified from API Recommended Practice 13B.  
1.2 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026.  
1.3 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard. Except, the sieve designation is identified using the “alternative” system in accordance with Practice E11 instead of the “standard system,” such that the sieve used is referred to as a No. 200 sieve, instead of a 75 µm sieve.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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ASTM D2434-22(Test Method)
Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of Coarse-Grained Soils

ABSTRACT
This test method covers the determination of the coefficient of permeability by a constant-head method for the laminar flow of water through granular soils. The procedure is to establish representative values of the coefficient of permeability of granular soils that may occur in natural deposits as placed in embankments, or when used as base courses under pavements. The different apparatus used in determining the granular soil permeability are presented. The methods in preparing the test specimen are presented in details. The testing and calculation procedure for granular soil permeability determination are presented.
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 These test methods are used to measure one-dimensional vertical flow of water through initially saturated coarse-grained, pervious (that is, free-draining) soils under an applied hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils is used in various civil engineering applications. These test methods are suitable for determination of hydraulic conductivity for soils with k > 10–7 m/s.
Note 2: Clean coarse-grained soils that are classified using Practice D2487-17 as GP, GW, SP, and SW can be tested using these test methods. Depending on fraction and characteristics of fine-grained particles present in soils, these test methods may be suitable for testing other soil types with fines content greater than 5 % (for example, GP-GC, SP-SM).  
5.2 Coarse-grained soils are to be tested at a void ratio representative of field conditions. For engineered fills, compaction specification can be used to provide target test conditions, whereas for natural soils, field testing of in-situ density can be used to provide target test conditions.  
5.3 Use of a dual-ring permeameter is included in these test methods in addition to a single-ring permeameter for the rigid wall test apparatus. The dual-ring permeameter allows for reducing potential adverse effects of sidewall leakage on measured hydraulic conductivity of the test specimens. The use of a plate at the outflow end of the specimen that contains a ring with a diameter smaller than the diameter of the permeameter and the presence of two outflow ports (one from the inner ring, one from the annular space between the inner ring and the permeameter wall) allows for separating the flow from the central region of the test specimen from the flow near the sidewall of the permeameter.
Note 3: Sidewall leakage has been reported to have significant influence on flow conditions for coarse-grained soils due to presence of larger voids at the boundary and higher void ratio in this region of the specimen. Three modificat...
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover laboratory measurement of the hydraulic conductivity (also referred to as coefficient of permeability) of water-saturated coarse-grained soils (for example, sands and gravels) with k > 10–7 m/s. The test methods utilize low hydraulic gradient conditions.  
1.2 This standard describes two methods (A and B) for determining hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils. Method A incorporates use of a rigid wall permeameter and Method B incorporates the use of a flexible wall permeameter. A single- or dual-ring rigid wall permeameter may be used in Method A. A dual-ring permeameter may be preferred over a single-ring permeameter when adverse effects from short-circuiting of permeant water along the sidewalls of the permeameter (that is, prevent sidewall leakage) are suspected by the user of this standard.  
1.3 The test methods are used under constant head conditions.  
1.4 The test methods are used under saturated soil conditions.  
1.5 Water is used to permeate the test specimen with these test methods.  
1.6 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
Note 1: Hydraulic conductivity has traditionally been reported in cm/s in the US, even though the official SI unit for hydraul...

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ASTM
ASTM D3966/D3966M-22(Test Method)
Standard Test Methods for Deep Foundation Elements Under Static Lateral Load

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Field tests provide the most reliable relationship between the static lateral load applied to a deep foundation and the resulting lateral movement. Test results may also provide information used to assess the distribution of lateral resistance along the element and the long-term load-deflection behavior. The foundation engineer may evaluate the test results to determine if, after applying the appropriate factors, the element or group of elements has an ultimate lateral capacity and a deflection at service load satisfactory to satisfy specific foundation requirements. When performed as part of a multiple-element test program, the foundation engineer may also use the results to assess the viability of different sizes and types of foundation elements and the variability of the test site.  
5.2 The analysis of lateral test results obtained using proper instrumentation helps the foundation engineer characterize the variation of element-soil interaction properties, such as the coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction, to estimate bending stresses and lateral deflection over the length of the element for use in the structural design of the element.  
5.3 If feasible, without exceeding the safe structural load on the element or element cap (hereinafter unless otherwise indicated, “element” and “element group” are interchangeable as appropriate), the maximum load applied should reach a failure load from which the foundation engineer may determine the lateral load capacity of the element. Tests that achieve a failure load may help the designer improve the efficiency of the foundation by reducing the foundation element-length, quantity, or size.  
5.4 If deemed impractical to apply lateral test loads to an inclined element, the foundation engineer may elect to use lateral test results from a nearby vertical element to evaluate the lateral capacity of the inclined element.  
5.5 The scope of this standard does not include analysis for foundation lateral capacity, but...
SCOPE
1.1 The test methods described in this standard measure the lateral deflection of an individual vertical or inclined deep foundation element or group of elements when subjected to static lateral loading. These methods apply to all deep foundations, or deep foundation systems as they are practical to test. The individual components of which are referred to herein as elements that function as, or in a manner similar to, drilled shafts, micropiles, cast-in-place piles (augered-cast-in-place piles, barrettes, and slurry walls), driven piles, such as pre-cast concrete piles, timber piles or steel sections (steel pipes or H-beams) or any number of other element types, regardless of their method of installation. Although the test methods may be used for testing single elements or element groups, the test results may not represent the long-term performance of the entire deep foundation system.  
1.2 This standard provides minimum requirements for testing deep foundation elements under static lateral load. Project plans, specifications, provisions, or any combination thereof may provide additional requirements and procedures as needed to satisfy the objectives of a particular test program. The engineer in charge of the foundation design, referred to herein as the foundation engineer, shall approve any deviations, deletions, or additions to the requirements of this standard. (exception: the test load applied to the testing apparatus shall not exceed the rated capacity established by the engineer who designed the testing apparatus).  
1.3 Apparatus and procedures herein designated “optional” may produce different test results and may be used only when approved by the foundation engineer. The word “shall” indicates a mandatory provision, and the word “should” indicates a recommended or advisory provision. Imperative sentences indicate mandatory provisions.  
1.4 The foundation engineer should interpret the test results obtained f...

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