ASTM F2205-02(2007)
(Guide)Standard Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of Chemical Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: Tropical Environments
Standard Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of Chemical Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: Tropical Environments
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers recommendations for use of chemical dispersants to assist in the control of oil spills and is written with the goal of minimizing the environmental impacts of oil spills. Aesthetic and socioeconomic factors are not considered; although, these and other factors are often important in spill response.
1.2 Each on-scene commander has available several means of control or cleanup of spilled oil. In this guide, use of chemical dispersants should not be considered as a last resort after other methods have failed. Chemical dispersants should be given equal consideration with other spill countermeasures.
1.3 This guide presents general guidelines only. The oil is assumed to be dispersible and the dispersant to be effective, available, applied correctly, and in compliance with relevant government regulations. Oil, as used in this guide, includes crude oils and fuel oils. Differences between individual dispersants and to a certain degree, differences between different oils are not considered.
1.4 This guide is one of several related to dispersant considerations in different environments. The other standards are listed in Section 2.
1.5 This guide applies to marine and estuarine environments but not to freshwater environments.
1.6 In making dispersant use decisions, appropriate government authorities should be consulted as required by law.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
General Information
Relations
Standards Content (Sample)
NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation:F2205–02 (Reapproved 2007)
Standard Guide for
Ecological Considerations for the Use of Chemical
Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: Tropical Environments
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 2205; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope F 1209 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
Oilspill Dispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Envi-
1.1 This guide covers recommendations for use of chemical
ronments, Ponds and Sloughs
dispersants to assist in the control of oil spills and is written
F 1210 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
with the goal of minimizing the environmental impacts of oil
Oilspill Dispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Envi-
spills.Aesthetic and socioeconomic factors are not considered;
ronments, Lakes and Large Water Bodies
although, these and other factors are often important in spill
F 1231 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
response.
Oilspill Dispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Envi-
1.2 Each on-scene commander has available several means
ronments, Rivers and Creeks
of control or cleanup of spilled oil. In this guide, use of
F 1279 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
chemical dispersants should not be considered as a last resort
Oilspill Dispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Envi-
after other methods have failed. Chemical dispersants should
ronments, Permeable Surfaces
be given equal consideration with other spill countermeasures.
F 1280 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of
1.3 This guide presents general guidelines only. The oil is
Oilspill Dispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Envi-
assumed to be dispersible and the dispersant to be effective,
ronments, Impermeable Surfaces
available, applied correctly, and in compliance with relevant
government regulations. Oil, as used in this guide, includes
3. Significance and Use
crude oils and fuel oils. Differences between individual dis-
3.1 This guide is meant to aid local and regional spill
persants and to a certain degree, differences between different
responseteamswhomayapplyitduringresponseplanningand
oils are not considered.
spill events.
1.4 This guide is one of several related to dispersant
3.2 This guide presents data on the effects of surface oil,
considerations in different environments. The other standards
dissolved oil and dispersed oil on components of tropical
are listed in Section 2.
environments.These data can aid in decision-making related to
1.5 Thisguideappliestomarineandestuarineenvironments
the use of dispersants to minimize environmental damage from
but not to freshwater environments.
oil spills.
1.6 In making dispersant use decisions, appropriate govern-
ment authorities should be consulted as required by law.
4. General Considerations for Making Dispersant-Use
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
Decisions
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
4.1 The decision of whether to use or not to use dispersants
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
in a given spill situation involves trade-offs. Dispersing a slick
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
at one site temporarily introduces more oil into the water
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
column at that site than would be there if a surfaceslickfloated
over it. Therefore, adverse effects on water column organisms
2. Referenced Documents
2 may be increased at that site so that adverse effects can be
2.1 ASTM Standards:
decreased at other sites.
4.2 Dispersant use is primarily a spill control method, not a
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous cleanup method. Such use can give spill response personnel
Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
some control over where the impacts of a spill will occur
F20.13 on Treatment.
whatever types of impacts they may be. Since some environ-
Current edition approved April 1, 2007. Published May 2007. Originally
ments are known to be more vulnerable to the longer-lasting
approved in 2002. Last previous edition approved in 2002 as F 2205 – 02.
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
impacts of spilled oil, an acceptable trade-off may be to protect
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
those environments by dispersing an oil slick in a less sensitive
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
F2205–02 (2007)
or less productive environment. In general, the net environ- attached plants and epifauna, infauna, mobile invertebrates,
mental benefit of dispersant use versus non-use should be and fishes. The large number of economically important
evaluated. The net environmental benefit of a particular coun- species they support make reefs locally important in commer-
termeasure involves evaluating benefits and disadvantages of cial and sport fisheries. The resultant high diversity and
the particular technology being evaluated, versus other cleanup abundance of reef associates and the functional and spatial
methods or no action, on the habitat or ecosystems involved in dominance of corals and coralline algae are the essential
the area. Environmental benefit analysis is best conducted characteristics of coral reefs.
before the spill. 5.3.1 Coral reefs are circumglobal in the tropics and sub-
4.3 In this guide, environments that are most vulnerable to tropics between the northern and southern hemispheric 18.5°C
the longer-term impacts of oil contamination are identified. climatic isotherms. A majority of coral species and the most
Protection of these environments is recommended as a high diverse reefs occur in Indo-West Pacific seas. Tropical West
priority, by means of dispersants or other methods. Atlantic and Eastern Pacific reefs are generally less diverse in
terms of corals and reef associates.
5. The Tropical Environment
5.4 Seagrasses—Seagrassescanbefoundinshallowmarine
environments from the tropics to Polar regions. This guide
5.1 Tropical environments encompass many different habi-
focuses on those located in tropical waters. Seagrass beds form
tats. This guide will cover those habitats that are important in
a discrete ecosystem that traps detritus derived from terrestrial
terms of decisions to use dispersants. The applications of
and marine sources, and then exports large quantities of plant
dispersant to open waters and waters of depth greater than
about 10 metres will not be covered here and is covered by and animal materials, including leaf and root fragments,
dissolved organic matter, and detritus, to the open sea. The
other guides listed in Section 2. Shallow waters and habitats
associated with mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs are presence of an extensive network of roots and rhizomes
facilitates the sediment-binding ability of the grass beds; the
important considerations. Habitats other than those such as
sand beaches, mudflats, cobble beaches and rocky shores may seagrass leaves effectively retard currents, thus promoting
sedimentations of organic and inorganic materials around the
be common in certain localities but are generally less-sensitive
and are covered in the guide on temperate environments. plants.
5.4.1 Seagrass communities are among the most productive
5.2 Mangrove ecosystems are intertidal forests dominated
by various species of woody halophytes that are commonly of natural ecosystems. Seagrass leaf blades support large
numbers of epiphytes which can equal the biomass of the grass
called mangroves. There are many families and species of
mangroves (1-4) . Mangrove ecosystems occur in tropical itself. Major food chains are based upon a variety of epiphytes
and associated organisms.Active sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus,
low-energy depositional areas. Mangroves tend to further
promote the deposition and recycling of organic and mineral and carbon cycles are maintained through the sediment-plant-
water interfaces, and the dense interlacing mat of vegetation
matter. Their extensive root systems are very important in
stabilizing intertidal sediments (3). Adult mangroves form the provides ideal cover for foraging marine fauna as well as
shelter and protection for larval and juvenile forms.
structural basis for the mangrove community in that they
provide attachment sites for many species of animals and
6. Effects of Oil and Dispersed Oil on Tropical Biota
shelter for many others.
6.1 Mangroves—Mangroves are primarily impacted by oil
5.2.1 Mangrove ecosystems contribute to the productivity
by three different routes; through the oiling of the pneumato-
of tropical marine ecosystems where they play the same but
phores, or breathing pores typically located on special aerial
more important roles as do salt marshes in temperate climates.
roots or stems, through oil absorption from the water column
Mangroves are important as nursery areas as well as for the
and through oil absorption through the roots from contami-
detritus that they supply to the surrounding communities (3).
nated soil/sediment and ground water (6-12). Mangroves with
Much of the world’s fish populations depend on detritus and
oil on pneumatophores may die within about 5 to 7 days,
remineralized nutrients exported from mangrove areas (5).
depending on oxygenation conditions at the site (13-15).
5.2.2 Mangrove forests dominate much of the world’s
Mangroves may die from high concentrations of oil in the
tropical shoreline; many are adjacent to tanker routes, oil fields
water column (16-18). The third route of oil impact on
and refineries. The low energy characteristic of mangrove
mangroves, through oil absorption from the soil, is also well
forests leads to the entry and retention of oil in these environ-
documented (19-22). Oil in mangrove-dominated sediments
ments.
can cause long-lasting effects and degrades only very slowly
5.3 Coral Reefs—Coral reefs are structures created and
(23-27). Sublethal effects including leaf loss, deformations,
maintained by the establishment and growth of hard corals and
and low growth can persist for five years after the spill event
coralline algae. They may be comprised of emergent or
(8, 9, 28).Replantingmangroves,aprimaryrestorationmethod
submergent reefal zones, or a combination of both. Geomor-
is successful in soils with reduced hydrocarbon content (29-
phically, barrier and fringing reefs protect the insular and
33). Natural regrowth occurs, but occurs slowly (34-36).
continental coastlines which they border from erosion. Typi-
Countermeasures which reduce the amount of oil arriving into
cally, the coral reef provides habitat for a large variety of
the mangrove area are suggested (37-39).
6.1.1 Lowlevelsofoilfromeitherdissolved/dispersedoilin
the water column or in the sediments cause a variety of
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of
this guide. sub-lethal effects on mangroves, including leaf loss, reduced
F2205–02 (2007)
growth of adventitious roots, abnormal pneumatophores and extensivemortality(17).Theuptakeofdissolvedanddispersed
mineral imbalance, and slow growth rates (40-43). Studies oil can result in severe mortality at levels as low as 100 µg/L
show that these effects will persist from 1 year up to 7 (75). Seagrasses are not usually subject to harmful concentra-
depending on amount of oil and environmental conditions. tions of water-borne hydrocarbons by the passage of a slick
6.2 Biota Associated with Mangrove Forests—Mangrove overhead and are typically unaffected (76-78). Seagrasses are,
forests provide shelter and support for an extensive system of however, particularly susceptible to high concentrations of
biota including algae, crustaceans, and molluscs. Dissolved dissolved and dispersed oil and this may lead to long lasting
anddispersedoilcancauselethalitytomangrovebiotaatlevels effectsormortality.Thelethaltoxicitytoseagrassesvariesvery
as low as 20 ppm and naphthalene as low as 0.4 ppm on much with species, and is between 75 to 125 ppm in 100 h (79,
prolonged contact (42-51). Studies have shown that the abun- 80). Use of dispersants may increase the exposure of sea-
dances of species inversely correlated with the apparent oil grasses to oil (81, 82).
damage (52). Other studies have shown that the specific 6.6 Biota Associated with Seagrasses—Seagrasses provide
numbers of a given species did not necessarily correlate with
shelter and nutrients for an extensive system of biota (83, 84).
oil content (53, 54). Dissolved and dispersed oil can cause lethality to these biota at
6.3 Coral Reefs—Corals can be exposed to oil by two
levels as low as 20 ppm (12, 42-47, 50, 51, 69-71 ). Increasing
modes, direct oiling and through the uptake of dissolved or
amounts of oil availability, such as through the use of dispers-
dispersed oil. Direct oiling occurs rarely but can result in
ants, increase the exposure to organisms (73).
extensive mortality. The uptake of dissolved and dispersed oil
can result in severe mortality at levels as low as 12 µL/L for
7. Recommendations
prolonged exposures (55). Corals are not usually subject to
7.1 Dispersant use decisions must be based on the net
harmful concentrations of water-borne hydrocarbons by the
environmental benefit analysis of use versus non-use of dis-
passage of a slick overhead and are typically unaffected
persants.
(56-59). Similarly corals have been shown to reject particles of
7.2 Dispersantusedecisionsshouldincludeconsiderationof
oil larger (>60 µm) than dispersed droplets (60). Corals are,
the proximity of the dispersant application to sensitive marine
however, particularly susceptible to high concentrations of
environments including mangrove forests, seagrasses and cor-
dissolved and dispersed oil and this may lead to long lasting
als.
effects or mortality (42, 43, 47, 61-64 ). Because dispersants
7.3 An important consideration is the flushing rate of water
move oil into the water column, they may increase the effect of
in the mangrove, seagrass and coral areas. If the flushing rate
the oils on corals (5, 65). Exposure of corals to about 20 to 50
is rapid, dissolved and dispersed oil will have minimal effects.
ppm of dissolved or dispersed oil showed that behavioral
7.4 In
...
Questions, Comments and Discussion
Ask us and Technical Secretary will try to provide an answer. You can facilitate discussion about the standard in here.