ASTM F2205-07(2013)
(Guide)Standard Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of Chemical Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: Tropical Environments
Standard Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use of Chemical Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: Tropical Environments
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
3.1 This guide is meant to aid local and regional spill response teams who may apply it during response planning and spill events.
3.2 This guide presents data on the effects of surface oil, dissolved oil and dispersed oil on components of tropical environments. These data can aid in decision-making related to the use of dispersants to minimize environmental damage from oil spills.
SCOPE
1.1 This guide covers recommendations for use of chemical dispersants to assist in the control of oil spills and is written with the goal of minimizing the environmental impacts of oil spills. Aesthetic and socioeconomic factors are not considered; although, these and other factors are often important in spill response.
1.2 Each on-scene commander has available several means of control or cleanup of spilled oil. In this guide, use of chemical dispersants should not be considered as a last resort after other methods have failed. Chemical dispersants should be given equal consideration with other spill countermeasures.
1.3 This guide presents general guidelines only. The oil is assumed to be dispersible and the dispersant to be effective, available, applied correctly, and in compliance with relevant government regulations. Oil, as used in this guide, includes crude oils and fuel oils. Differences between individual dispersants and to a certain degree, differences between different oils are not considered.
1.4 This guide is one of several related to dispersant considerations in different environments. The other standards are listed in Section 2.
1.5 This guide applies to marine and estuarine environments but not to freshwater environments.
1.6 In making dispersant use decisions, appropriate government authorities should be consulted as required by law.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
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Designation: F2205 − 07 (Reapproved 2013)
Standard Guide for
Ecological Considerations for the Use of Chemical
Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: Tropical Environments
This standard is issued under the fixed designation F2205; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents
1.1 This guide covers recommendations for use of chemical 2.1 ASTM Standards:
dispersants to assist in the control of oil spills and is written F2532 Guide for Determining Net Environmental Benefit of
with the goal of minimizing the environmental impacts of oil Dispersant Use
spills.Aesthetic and socioeconomic factors are not considered;
3. Significance and Use
although, these and other factors are often important in spill
response.
3.1 This guide is meant to aid local and regional spill
responseteamswhomayapplyitduringresponseplanningand
1.2 Each on-scene commander has available several means
spill events.
of control or cleanup of spilled oil. In this guide, use of
chemical dispersants should not be considered as a last resort
3.2 This guide presents data on the effects of surface oil,
after other methods have failed. Chemical dispersants should dissolved oil and dispersed oil on components of tropical
be given equal consideration with other spill countermeasures.
environments.These data can aid in decision-making related to
the use of dispersants to minimize environmental damage from
1.3 This guide presents general guidelines only. The oil is
oil spills.
assumed to be dispersible and the dispersant to be effective,
available, applied correctly, and in compliance with relevant
4. General Considerations for Making Dispersant-Use
government regulations. Oil, as used in this guide, includes
Decisions
crude oils and fuel oils. Differences between individual disper-
4.1 The decision of whether to use or not to use dispersants
sants and to a certain degree, differences between different oils
in a given spill situation involves trade-offs. Dispersing a slick
are not considered.
at one site temporarily introduces more oil into the water
1.4 This guide is one of several related to dispersant
column at that site than would be there if a surfaceslickfloated
considerations in different environments. The other standards
over it. Therefore, adverse effects on water column organisms
are listed in Section 2.
may be increased at that site so that adverse effects can be
1.5 Thisguideappliestomarineandestuarineenvironments
decreased at other sites.
but not to freshwater environments.
4.2 Dispersant use is primarily a spill control method, not a
1.6 In making dispersant use decisions, appropriate govern-
cleanup method. Such use can give spill response personnel
ment authorities should be consulted as required by law.
some control over where the impacts of a spill will occur
whatever types of impacts they may be. Since some environ-
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
ments are known to be more vulnerable to the longer-lasting
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
impacts of spilled oil, an acceptable trade-off may be to protect
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
those environments by dispersing an oil slick in a less sensitive
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
or less productive environment. In general, the net environ-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
mental benefit of dispersant use versus non-use should be
evaluated (see Guide F2532). The net environmental benefit of
a particular countermeasure involves evaluating benefits and
disadvantages of the particular technology being evaluated,
versus other cleanup methods or no action, on the habitat or
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous
Substances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
F20.13 on Treatment. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved April 1, 2013. Published April 2013. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 2002. Last previous edition approved in 2007 as F2205 – 07. DOI: Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
10.1520/F2205-07R13. the ASTM website.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
F2205 − 07 (2013)
ecosystems involved in the area. Environmental benefit analy- 5.3.1 Coral reefs are circumglobal in the tropics and sub-
sis is best conducted before the spill. tropics between the northern and southern hemispheric 18.5°C
climatic isotherms. A majority of coral species and the most
4.3 In this guide, environments that are most vulnerable to
diverse reefs occur in Indo-West Pacific seas. Tropical West
the longer-term impacts of oil contamination are identified.
Atlantic and Eastern Pacific reefs are generally less diverse in
Protection of these environments is recommended as a high
terms of corals and reef associates.
priority, by means of dispersants or other methods.
5.4 Seagrasses—Seagrasses can be found in shallow marine
5. The Tropical Environment
environments from the tropics to Polar regions. This guide
5.1 Tropical environments encompass many different habi-
focuses on those located in tropical waters. Seagrass beds form
tats. This guide will cover those habitats that are important in
a discrete ecosystem that traps detritus derived from terrestrial
terms of decisions to use dispersants. The applications of
and marine sources, and then exports large quantities of plant
dispersant to open waters and waters of depth greater than
and animal materials, including leaf and root fragments,
about 10 metres will not be covered here and is covered by
dissolved organic matter, and detritus, to the open sea. The
other guides listed in Section 2. Shallow waters and habitats presence of an extensive network of roots and rhizomes
associated with mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs are
facilitates the sediment-binding ability of the grass beds; the
important considerations. Habitats other than those such as seagrass leaves effectively retard currents, thus promoting
sand beaches, mudflats, cobble beaches and rocky shores may
sedimentations of organic and inorganic materials around the
becommonincertainlocalitiesbutaregenerallyless-sensitive. plants.
5.4.1 Seagrass communities are among the most productive
5.2 Mangrove ecosystems are intertidal forests dominated
of natural ecosystems. Seagrass leaf blades support large
by various species of woody halophytes that are commonly
numbers of epiphytes which can equal the biomass of the grass
called mangroves. There are many families and species of
itself. Major food chains are based upon a variety of epiphytes
mangroves (1-4) . Mangrove ecosystems occur in tropical
and associated organisms.Active sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus,
low-energy depositional areas. Mangroves tend to further
and carbon cycles are maintained through the sediment-plant-
promote the deposition and recycling of organic and mineral
water interfaces, and the dense interlacing mat of vegetation
matter. Their extensive root systems are very important in
provides ideal cover for foraging marine fauna as well as
stabilizing intertidal sediments (3). Adult mangroves form the
shelter and protection for larval and juvenile forms.
structural basis for the mangrove community in that they
provide attachment sites for many species of animals and
6. Effects of Oil and Dispersed Oil on Tropical Biota
shelter for many others.
6.1 Mangroves—Mangroves are primarily impacted by oil
5.2.1 Mangrove ecosystems contribute to the productivity
by three different routes; through the oiling of the
of tropical marine ecosystems where they play the same but
pneumatophores, or breathing pores typically located on spe-
more important roles as do salt marshes in temperate climates.
cial aerial roots or stems, through oil absorption from the water
Mangroves are important as nursery areas as well as for the
column and through oil absorption through the roots from
detritus that they supply to the surrounding communities (3).
contaminated soil/sediment and ground water (6-12). Man-
Much of the world’s fish populations depend on detritus and
groves with oil on pneumatophores may die within about 5 to
remineralized nutrients exported from mangrove areas (5).
7 days, depending on oxygenation conditions at the site
5.2.2 Mangrove forests dominate much of the world’s
(13-15). Mangroves may die from high concentrations of oil in
tropical shoreline; many are adjacent to tanker routes, oil fields
the water column (16-18). The third route of oil impact on
and refineries. The low energy characteristic of mangrove
mangroves, through oil absorption from the soil, is also well
forests leads to the entry and retention of oil in these environ-
documented (19-22). Oil in mangrove-dominated sediments
ments.
can cause long-lasting effects and degrades only very slowly
5.3 Coral Reefs—Coral reefs are structures created and
(23-27). Sublethal effects including leaf loss, deformations,
maintained by the establishment and growth of hard corals and
and low growth can persist for five years after the spill event
coralline algae. They may be comprised of emergent or
(8, 9, 28).Replantingmangroves,aprimaryrestorationmethod
submergent reefal zones, or a combination of both.
is successful in soils with reduced hydrocarbon content (29-
Geomorphically, barrier and fringing reefs protect the insular
33). Natural regrowth occurs, but occurs slowly (34-36).
and continental coastlines which they border from erosion.
Countermeasures which reduce the amount of oil arriving into
Typically, the coral reef provides habitat for a large variety of
the mangrove area are suggested (37-40).
attached plants and epifauna, infauna, mobile invertebrates,
6.1.1 Lowlevelsofoilfromeitherdissolved/dispersedoilin
and fishes. The large number of economically important
the water column or in the sediments cause a variety of
species they support make reefs locally important in commer-
sub-lethal effects on mangroves, including leaf loss, reduced
cial and sport fisheries. The resultant high diversity and
growth of adventitious roots, abnormal pneumatophores and
abundance of reef associates and the functional and spatial
mineral imbalance, and slow growth rates (42-45). Studies
dominance of corals and coralline algae are the essential
show that these effects will persist from 1 year up to 7
characteristics of coral reefs.
depending on amount of oil and environmental conditions.
6.2 Biota Associated with Mangrove Forests—Mangrove
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of
this guide. forests provide shelter and support for an extensive system of
F2205 − 07 (2013)
biota including algae, crustaceans, and molluscs. Dissolved tions of water-borne hydrocarbons by the passage of a slick
anddispersedoilcancauselethalitytomangrovebiotaatlevels overhead and are typically unaffected (78-80). Seagrasses are,
as low as 20 ppm and naphthalene as low as 0.4 ppm on however, particularly susceptible to high concentrations of
prolonged contact (44-53). Studies have shown that the abun- dissolved and dispersed oil and this may lead to long lasting
dances of species inversely correlated with the apparent oil effectsormortality.Thelethaltoxicitytoseagrassesvariesvery
damage (54). Other studies have shown that the specific much with species, and is between 75 to 125 ppm in 100 h (81,
numbers of a given species did not necessarily correlate with 82). Use of dispersants may increase the exposure of sea-
oil content (55, 56). grasses to oil (83, 84).
6.6 Biota Associated with Seagrasses—Seagrasses provide
6.3 Coral Reefs—Corals can be exposed to oil by two
shelter and nutrients for an extensive system of biota (85, 86).
modes, direct oiling and through the uptake of dissolved or
Dissolved and dispersed oil can cause lethality to these biota at
dispersed oil. Direct oiling occurs rarely but can result in
levels as low as 20 ppm (12, 44-49, 52, 53, 71-73 ). Increasing
extensive mortality. The uptake of dissolved and dispersed oil
amounts of oil availability, such as through the use of
can result in severe mortality at levels as low as 12 µL/L for
dispersants, increase the exposure to organisms (75).
prolonged exposures (57). Corals are not usually subject to
harmful concentrations of water-borne hydrocarbons by the
7. Recommendations
passage of a slick overhead and are typically unaffected
7.1 Dispersant use decisions must be based on the net
(58-61). Similarly corals have been shown to reject particles of
environmental benefit analysis of use versus non-use of dis-
oil larger (>60 µm) than dispersed droplets (62). Corals are,
persants.
however, particularly susceptible to high concentrations of
dissolved and dispersed oil and this may lead to long lasting
7.2 Dispersantusedecisionsshouldincludeconsiderationof
effects or mortality (44, 45, 49, 63-66 ). Because dispersants the proximity of the dispersant application to sensitive marine
move oil into the water column, they may increase the effect of
environments including mangrove forests, seagrasses and cor-
the oils on corals (5, 41, 67). Exposure of corals to about 20 to als.
50 ppm of dissolved or dispersed oil showed that behavioral
7.3 An important consideration is the flushing rate of water
reflexes were induced in corals, however depuration was noted
in the mangrove, seagrass and coral areas. If the flushing rate
within a week and recovery within a few weeks (68-70). Some
is rapid, dissolved and dispersed oil will have minimal effects.
long-lasting effects of low-level exposure was observed, in-
7.4 In many jurisdictions there are regulatory limitations in
cluding reduced growth and deformation.
water depth (3 to 30 m) that dispersants can be applied. These
6.4 Biota Associated with Coral Reefs—Coral reefs provide
limitations shall be followed.
shelter and support for an extensive system of biota. Prolonged
7.5 Dispersants are best applied in deep waters and not in
exposure to dissolved and dispersed oil can cause lethality to
direct proximity to mangroves, seagrasses and corals.
reef biota at levels as low as 20 ppm (12, 44-49, 52, 53, 71-73
7.6 Chemical dispersion should be considered a viable
). Studies have shown that the abundances of species inversely
option
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