ASTM E2280-21

Standard Guide for Fire Hazard Assessment of the Effect of Upholstered Seating Furniture Within Patient Rooms of Health Care Facilities

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 This guide is intended for use by those undertaking the development of fire hazard assessments for upholstered seating furniture in health care occupancies.  
4.2 As a guide this document provides information on an approach to development of a fire hazard assessment, but fixed procedures are not established. Section 1.7 describes some cautions to be taken into account.  
4.3 A fire hazard assessment developed following this guide should specify all steps required to determine fire hazard measures for which safety thresholds or pass/fail criteria can be meaningfully set by responsible officials using the standard.  
4.4 A fire hazard assessment developed as a result of using this guide should be able to assess a new item of upholstered seating furniture being considered for use in a certain health care facility, and reach one of the conclusions in 4.4.1 – 4.4.4.  
4.4.1 The new upholstered seating furniture item is safer, in terms of predicted fire performance, than the one in established use. Then, the new product would be desirable, from the point of view of fire safety.  
4.4.2 There is no difference between the predicted fire safety of the new item and the one in established use. Then, there would be neither advantage nor disadvantage in using the new product, from the point of view of fire safety.  
4.4.3 The new upholstered seating furniture item is predicted to be less safe, in terms of fire performance, than the one in established use. Then, the new item would be less desirable, from the point of view of fire safety than the one in established use.
4.4.3.1 If the new upholstered furniture item is predicted to be less safe, in terms of fire performance, than the one in established use, a direct substitution of the products would provide a lower level of safety and the new product should not be used, without other compensatory changes being made. A new upholstered furniture product can, however, be made acceptable if, and only if, it is part of a co...
SCOPE
1.1 This is a guide to developing fire hazard assessments for upholstered seating furniture, within patient rooms of health care occupancies. As such, it provides methods and contemporary fire safety engineering techniques to develop a fire hazard assessment for use in specifications for upholstered seating furniture in such occupancies.  
1.2 Hazard assessment is an estimation of the potential severity of the fires that can develop with certain products in defined scenarios, once the incidents have occurred. Hazard assessment does not address the likelihood of a fire occurring, but is based on the premise that an ignition has occurred.  
1.3 Because it is a guide, this document cannot be used for regulation, nor does it give definitive instructions on how to conduct a fire hazard assessment.  
1.4 This guide is intended to provide assistance to those interested in mitigating the potential damage from fires associated with upholstered furniture in patient rooms in health care occupancies.  
1.5 Thus, this guide can be used to help assess the fire hazard of materials, assemblies, or systems intended for use in upholstered furniture, by providing a standard basis for studying the level of fire safety associated with certain design choices. It can also aid those interested in designing features appropriate to health care occupancies. Finally, it may be useful to safety personnel in health care occupancies.  
1.6 This guide is a focused application of Guide E1546, which offers help in reference to fire scenarios that are specific to upholstered furniture in health care occupancies, and includes an extensive bibliography. It differs from Guide E1546 in that it offers guidance that is specific to the issue of upholstered furniture in patient rooms of health care facilities, rather than general guidance. Appendix X11 includes some statistics on the magnitude of the potential problem in the U.S.  
1.7 A fire hazard assessm...

General Information

• Status: Published
• Publication Date: 14-Dec-2021
• ICS: 11.140 - Hospital equipment
• ICS: 13.220.20 - Fire protection
• Technical Committee: E05 - Fire Standards
• Drafting Committee: E05.15 - Furnishings and Contents

Relations

• Refers: ASTM E176-24 - Standard Terminology of Fire Standards
• Effective Date: 01-Jan-2024
• Refers: ASTM E2067-23 - Standard Practice for Full-Scale Oxygen Consumption Calorimetry Fire Tests
• Effective Date: 01-Nov-2023
• Refers: ASTM E648-23 - Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
• Effective Date: 01-Nov-2023
• Refers: ASTM E1591-20 - Standard Guide for Obtaining Data for Fire Growth Models
• Effective Date: 01-Apr-2020
• Refers: ASTM E1740-20 - Standard Test Method for Determining the Heat Release Rate and Other Fire-Test-Response Characteristics of Wall Covering or Ceiling Covering Composites Using a Cone Calorimeter
• Effective Date: 01-Jan-2020
• Refers: ASTM E1474-20 - Standard Test Method for Determining the Heat Release Rate of Upholstered Furniture and Mattress Components or Composites Using a Bench Scale Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
• Effective Date: 01-Jan-2020
• Refers: ASTM E648-19ae1 - Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
• Effective Date: 01-Dec-2019
• Refers: ASTM E648-19a - Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
• Effective Date: 01-Dec-2019
• Refers: ASTM E648-19 - Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
• Effective Date: 15-Jul-2019
• Refers: ASTM E176-18a - Standard Terminology of Fire Standards
• Effective Date: 15-Dec-2018
• Refers: ASTM E662-18 - Standard Test Method for Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials
• Effective Date: 01-Dec-2018
• Refers: ASTM E1321-18 - Standard Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties
• Effective Date: 01-Nov-2018
• Refers: ASTM E176-18 - Standard Terminology of Fire Standards
• Effective Date: 01-Mar-2018
• Refers: ASTM E2061-18 - Standard Guide for Fire Hazard Assessment of Rail Transportation Vehicles
• Effective Date: 01-Mar-2018
• Refers: ASTM E648-17a - Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
• Effective Date: 01-Dec-2017

Overview

ASTM E2280-21 is the ASTM Standard Guide for Fire Hazard Assessment of the Effect of Upholstered Seating Furniture Within Patient Rooms of Health Care Facilities. Developed by ASTM Subcommittee E05.15, this guide aims to assist stakeholders in evaluating the fire hazards posed by upholstered seating furniture in patient rooms across healthcare occupancies. The document provides a structured approach for developing fire hazard assessments, supports innovation in fire-safe furniture design, and encourages the integration of fire safety engineering principles tailored to healthcare environments.

While this guide proposes methods and considerations relevant to fire hazard assessment, it does not prescribe fixed procedures or regulation requirements. Instead, it serves as a best-practice framework for facilities, manufacturers, and safety officials to analyze fire hazard potential, inform specifications, and enhance overall patient and occupant safety.

Key Topics

• Fire Hazard Assessment Approach: ASTM E2280-21 introduces a fire hazard assessment process for upholstered seating furniture based on contemporary fire safety engineering techniques. It includes identifying fire scenarios, defining design and occupant characteristics, and utilizing fire performance testing data.
• Scope of Application: Focuses specifically on new or existing upholstered seating furniture in patient rooms of healthcare facilities, as opposed to generalized fire safety or other building areas.
• Evaluating Fire Performance: The guide assists users in comparing the fire performance of new furniture items against those currently in use, supporting decisions on acceptance, substitution, or the need for compensatory safety measures.
• Safety Objectives: Primary fire safety objective is ensuring safe evacuation or removal of all threatened patients and occupants before untenable conditions are reached. Considerations include evacuation times, smoke obscuration, heat, toxicity, and the needs of individuals with disabilities.
• Fire Scenario Definition: Encourages identifying and analyzing plausible fire scenarios involving upholstered furniture-whether as the first or second item ignited-and their effects on room tenability and evacuation routes.

Applications

ASTM E2280-21 has practical applications in:

• Healthcare Facility Design & Renovation: Assists architects, engineers, and facility managers in selecting or specifying upholstered furniture that meets defined fire safety objectives for patient rooms.
• Product Evaluation and Procurement: Enables procurement teams to assess whether a new furniture item is safer, equivalent, or less safe than items in established use, guiding purchasing decisions and enabling data-driven safety justifications.
• Risk Management and Safety Audits: Supports safety officers and risk managers in performing fire hazard assessments as part of facility risk audits, accreditation processes, or compliance reviews related to fire safety in healthcare environments.
• Manufacturing and Product Development: Manufacturers of upholstered seating furniture can utilize this guide to develop, evaluate, and document the fire performance of new products intended for healthcare patient rooms.
• Regulatory and Code Compliance Support: While ASTM E2280-21 is not regulatory, it is referenced or used in conjunction with other fire codes, engineering standards, and healthcare safety practices, enabling consistency and harmonization with broader fire safety objectives.

Related Standards

Several standards complement the use and intent of ASTM E2280-21. Key related standards include:

• ASTM E1546: Guide for Development of Fire-Hazard-Assessment Standards-provides a broader performance-based approach, while E2280 applies specifically to upholstered furniture in healthcare patient rooms.
• ASTM E1537, E1352, E1353: Test methods for fire testing upholstered furniture and its components, often used to generate data for hazard assessment.
• NFPA 101: Life Safety Code-sets fire safety requirements for healthcare occupancies, including furnishings.
• ISO 9705: Full-scale room fire tests, relevant for modeling fire scenarios in patient rooms.
• CA Technical Bulletins 116 & 117: Specify flammability testing for upholstered furniture and fillings.
• UL 1975: Standard for fire tests for foamed plastics used decoratively.
• Americans with Disabilities Act: Ensures consideration for the safe evacuation and tenability for individuals with disabilities.

Keywords: ASTM E2280-21, fire hazard assessment, upholstered seating furniture, healthcare facilities, patient room fire safety, fire performance testing, fire scenarios, evacuation safety, fire safety engineering, fire protection in healthcare.

Standards Content (Sample)

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: E2280 − 21 An American National Standard
Standard Guide for
Fire Hazard Assessment of the Effect of Upholstered
Seating Furniture Within Patient Rooms of Health Care
Facilities
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2280; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision.Anumber in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
INTRODUCTION
The traditional approach to codes and standards is the specification of individual fire-test-response
requirements for each material, component or product placed in a certain environment and deemed
important to ensure fire safety. This practice has been in place for so long that it gives a significant
level of comfort: a manufacturers knows what is required to comply with the specifications and
specifiers apply the requirements. Implicit assumptions, not stated, are that the use of the prescribed
requirements ensures an adequate level of safety. There is no need to impose any change on those
manufacturers who supply safe systems meeting existing prescriptive requirements. However, as new
materials and products are developed, manufacturers, designers, and specifiers often desire the
flexibility to choose how the overall safety requirements are to be met. Thus, it is the responsibility
of the developer of an alternative approach to state explicitly the assumptions being made to produce
the output. The way to generate explicit and valid assumptions is to provide a performance-based
approach, based on test methods providing data in engineering units, suitable for use in fire safety
engineering calculations, as this guide provides. The resulting fire hazard assessment focuses on
upholstered seating furniture items within patient rooms in health care occupancies. This requires
developing the fire scenarios to be considered and the effect of all contents and design considerations
within the patient room which are potentially able to affect the resulting fire hazard. This offers
opportunities for innovation, and ingenuity, without compromising safety.
1. Scope* 1.3 Because it is a guide, this document cannot be used for
regulation, nor does it give definitive instructions on how to
1.1 Thisisaguidetodevelopingfirehazardassessmentsfor
conduct a fire hazard assessment.
upholstered seating furniture, within patient rooms of health
care occupancies. As such, it provides methods and contem- 1.4 This guide is intended to provide assistance to those
porary fire safety engineering techniques to develop a fire interested in mitigating the potential damage from fires asso-
hazard assessment for use in specifications for upholstered ciatedwithupholsteredfurnitureinpatientroomsinhealthcare
seating furniture in such occupancies. occupancies.
1.2 Hazard assessment is an estimation of the potential 1.5 Thus, this guide can be used to help assess the fire
hazard of materials, assemblies, or systems intended for use in
severity of the fires that can develop with certain products in
defined scenarios, once the incidents have occurred. Hazard upholstered furniture, by providing a standard basis for study-
ing the level of fire safety associated with certain design
assessment does not address the likelihood of a fire occurring,
but is based on the premise that an ignition has occurred. choices. It can also aid those interested in designing features
appropriate to health care occupancies. Finally, it may be
useful to safety personnel in health care occupancies.
1.6 This guide is a focused application of Guide E1546,
ThisguideisunderthejurisdictionofASTMCommitteeE05onFireStandards
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E05.15 on Furnishings and
which offers help in reference to fire scenarios that are specific
Contents.
to upholstered furniture in health care occupancies, and in-
Current edition approved Dec. 15, 2021. Published January 2022. Originally
cludes an extensive bibliography. It differs from Guide E1546
approved in 2003. Last previous edition approved in 2017 as E2280-17. DOI:
10.1520/E2280-21. in that it offers guidance that is specific to the issue of
*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2280 − 21
upholstered furniture in patient rooms of health care facilities, Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
rather than general guidance. Appendix X11 includes some E662Test Method for Specific Optical Density of Smoke
statistics on the magnitude of the potential problem in the U.S.
Generated by Solid Materials
E906Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release
1.7 A fire hazard assessment conducted in accordance with
Rates for Materials and Products Using a Thermopile
thisguideisstronglydependentonthelimitationsinthefactors
Method
described in 1.7.1 – 1.7.4.
E1321Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and
1.7.1 Input data (including their precision or accuracy).
Flame Spread Properties
1.7.2 Appropriate test procedures.
1.7.3 Fire models or calculation procedures that are simul- E1352Test Method for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of
taneously relevant, accurate and appropriate. Mock-Up Upholstered Furniture Assemblies
1.7.4 Advancement of scientific knowledge.
E1353Test Methods for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of
Components of Upholstered Furniture
1.8 This guide addresses specific fire scenarios which begin
E1354Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release
insideoroutsideofthepatientroom.However,theupholstered
Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Con-
furniture under consideration is inside the patient room.
sumption Calorimeter
1.9 The fire scenarios used for this hazard assessment guide
E1355Guide for Evaluating the Predictive Capability of
are described in 9.2. They involve the upholstered furniture
Deterministic Fire Models
itemwithinthepatientroomasthefirstorseconditemignited,
E1472Guide for Documenting Computer Software for Fire
in terms of the room of fire origin.Additionally, consideration
Models (Withdrawn 2011)
should be given to the effect of the patient room upholstered
E1474Test Method for Determining the Heat Release Rate
furniture item on the tenability of occupants of rooms other
of Upholstered Furniture and Mattress Components or
than the room of fire origin, and on that of potential rescuers.
Composites Using a Bench Scale Oxygen Consumption
1.10 This guide does not claim to address all fires that can
Calorimeter
occurinpatientroomsinhealthcareoccupancies.Inparticular,
E1537Test Method for Fire Testing of Upholstered Furni-
fireswithmoresevereinitiatingconditionsthanthoseassumed
ture
in the analysis may pose more severe fire hazard than that
E1546Guide for Development of Fire-Hazard-Assessment
calculated using this guide (see also 9.5).
Standards
1.11 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as
E1590Test Method for Fire Testing of Mattresses
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this
E1591Guide for Obtaining Data for Fire Growth Models
standard.
E1740Test Method for Determining the Heat Release Rate
1.12 This standard does not purport to address all of the
and Other Fire-Test-Response Characteristics of Wall
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
Covering or Ceiling Covering Composites Using a Cone
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
Calorimeter
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
E2061Guide for Fire Hazard Assessment of Rail Transpor-
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
tation Vehicles
1.13 This fire standard cannot be used to provide quantita-
E2067Practice for Full-Scale Oxygen Consumption Calo-
tive measures.
rimetry Fire Tests
1.14 This international standard was developed in accor-
E2257Test Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
Materials and Assemblies
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
F1534Test Method for Determining Changes in Fire-Test-
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
Response Characteristics of Cushioning Materials After
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
Water Leaching
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
2.2 CA Standards:
CA Technical Bulletin 116,“Requirements, Test Procedure
2. Referenced Documents
2 and Apparatus for Testing the Flame Retardance of Up-
2.1 ASTM Standards:
holstered Furniture,” January 1980
D123Terminology Relating to Textiles
CA Technical Bulletin 117, “Requirements, Test
E162Test Method for Surface Flammability of Materials
Procedures, and Apparatus for Testing the Flame Retar-
Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
dance of Resilient Filling Materials Used in Upholstery
E176Terminology of Fire Standards
Furniture,” January 1980
E603Guide for Room Fire Experiments
E648Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or www.astm.org.
contact ASTM Customer Service at [e-mail]. For Annual Book of ASTM Available from California Bureau of Household Goods and Services (BHGS),
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on State of California, Department of Consumer Affairs, 3485 Orange Grove Avenue,
the ASTM website. North Highlands, CA, 95660-5595, https://bhgs.dca.ca.gov.
E2280 − 21
2.3 NFPA Codes and Standards: to the terminology contained in Terminology D123 and ISO
NFPA101CodetoSafetytoLifefromFireinBuildingsand 4880. In case of conflict, the definitions given in Terminology
Structures
D123 shall prevail.
NFPA 265Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating
3.2 Definitions: Definitions contained in Terminology E176
RoomFireGrowthContributionofTextileWallCoverings
deemed essential for use with this guide:
NFPA 286Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating
3.2.1 fire hazard, n—the potential for harm associated with
Room Fire Growth Contribution of Wall and Ceiling
fire.
Interior Finish
3.2.1.1 Discussion—A fire may pose one or more types of
NFPA289Standard Method of Fire Test for Individual Fuel
hazard to people, animals, or property. These hazards are
Packages
associated with the environment and with a number of fire-
NFPA555Guide on Methods for Decreasing the Probability
test-response characteristics of materials, products, or assem-
of Flashover
bliesincludingbutnotlimitedtoeaseofignition,flamespread,
NFPA 901Uniform Coding for Fire Protection
rateofheatrelease,smokegenerationandobscuration,toxicity
2.4 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
6 of combustion products and ease of extinguishment.
Standards:
ISO 4880 Burning Behaviour of Textiles and Textile
3.2.2 fire performance, n—response of a material, product,
Products—Vocabulary
or assembly in a specific fire, other than in a fire test involving
ISO 9705Full Scale Room Fire Test for Surface Products
controlled conditions (different from fire-test-response
ISO 13943Fire Safety—Vocabulary
characteristic, q.v.).
2.5 Federal Standards: 3.2.2.1 Discussion—The ASTM Policy on Fire Standards
Americans with Disabilities Act distinguishes between the response of materials, products or
FED STD 191ATextile Test Method 5830
assemblies to heat and flame “under controlled conditions,”
whichisfire-test-responsecharacteristic,and“underactualfire
2.6 Underwriters Laboratories Standard:
conditions,” which is fire performance. Fire performance
UL 1975Standard Fire Tests for Foamed Plastics Used for
depends on the occasion or environment and may not be
Decorative Purposes
measurable. In view of the limited availability of fire-
2.7 International Code Council Codes:
performance data, the response to one or more fire tests,
IBCInternational Building Code, 2001 Supplement to 2000
appropriatelyrecognizedasrepresentingend-useconditions,is
Edition
generally used as a predictor of the fire performance of a
IFCInternational Fire Code, 2001 Supplement to 2000
material, product, or assembly.
Edition
3.2.3 fire scenario, n—a detailed description of conditions,
2.8 AATCC Standards:
including environmental, of one or more of the steps from
AATCC Test Method 86 - 2005 Drycleaning: Durability of
before ignition to the completion of combustion in an actual
Applied Designs and Finishes
fire, or in a full-scale simulation.
AATCCTestMethod124-2006AppearanceofFabricsafter
3.2.3.1 Discussion—The conditions describing a fire
Repeated Home Laundering
scenario,oragroupoffirescenarios,arethoserequiredforthe
3. Terminology testing, analysis, or assessment that is of interest. Typically
theyarethoseconditionsthatcancreatesignificantvariationin
3.1 Fordefinitionsoftermsusedinthisguideandassociated
theresults.Thedegreeofdetailnecessarywilldependuponthe
with fire issues refer to the terminology contained in Termi-
intended use of the fire scenario. Environmental conditions
nologyE176andISO13943.Incaseofconflict,thedefinitions
maybeincludedinascenariodefinitionbutarenotrequiredin
given in Terminology E176 shall prevail. For definitions of
all cases. Fire scenarios often define conditions in the early
terms used in this guide and associated with textile issues refer
stepsofafirewhileallowinganalysistocalculateconditionsin
later steps.
Available from National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 1 Batterymarch 3.2.4 flashover, n—the rapid transition to a state of total
Park, Quincy, MA 02269-9101.
surface involvement in a fire of combustible materials within
Available from International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 1 rue de
an enclosure.
Varembé, Case postale 56, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland or from American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Floor, New York, NY
3.2.4.1 Discussion—Flashover occurs when the surface
10036.
temperatures of an enclosure and its contents rise, producing
Available from General Services Administration, Specifications Activity,
combustible gases and vapors, and the enclosure heat flux
Printed Materials Supply Division, Building 197, Naval Weapons Plant,
Washington, DC, 20407. becomes sufficient to heat these gases and vapors to their
Available from Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Corporate Progress, 333
ignition temperatures. This commonly occurs when the upper
Pfingsten Rd., Northbrook, IL 60062.
layer temperature reaches 600°C or when the radiant heat flux
Available from International Code Council (ICC), 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite
at the floor reaches 20 kW/m .
600, Falls Church, VA 22041.
Available from American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
3.2.5 heat release rate, n—the heat evolved from the
(AATCC), One Davis Dr., P.O. Box 12215, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-
2215. specimen, per unit of time.
E2280 − 21
3.2.6 smoke, n—the airborne solid and liquid particulates 4.4.2 Thereisnodifferencebetweenthepredictedfiresafety
and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or of the new item and the one in established use. Then, there
combustion. would be neither advantage nor disadvantage in using the new
product, from the point of view of fire safety.
3.2.7 upholstered, adj—covered with material (as fabric or
4.4.3 The new upholstered seating furniture item is pre-
padding) to provide a soft surface.
dictedtobelesssafe,intermsoffireperformance,thantheone
3.3 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
in established use.Then, the new item would be less desirable,
3.3.1 tenability (of humans to fire-generated conditions),
fromthepointofviewoffiresafetythantheoneinestablished
n—the capability of humans to occupy a room without becom-
use.
ing incapacitated or being killed as a result of a fire.
4.4.3.1 If the new upholstered furniture item is predicted to
3.3.2 tenability limit (of humans to fire-generated condi-
be less safe, in terms of fire performance, than the one in
tions) , n—limitatwhichahumanbeingisrenderedphysically
established use, a direct substitution of the products would
incapacitated or dies as a consequence of exposure to one or
provide a lower level of safety and the new product should not
more factors (such as toxic gases, temperature, heat flux, or
be used, without other compensatory changes being made. A
smoke obscuration) generated by a fire.
new upholstered furniture product can, however, be made
acceptable if, and only if, it is part of a complete,
3.3.3 upholstered seating furniture, n—a unit of interior
comprehensive, fire safety design for the patient room. Such a
furnishing that (1) contains any surface that is covered, in
patient room redesign should include one or more of the
whole or in part, with a fabric or related upholstery cover
following features: use of an alternative layout (albeit one that
material, (2) contains upholstery material, and (3) is intended
cannotbealteredbythepatientroomusers)orincreaseduseof
or promoted for sitting upon.
automatic fire protection systems or changes in other furnish-
3.3.3.1 Discussion—For the purpose of this guide,
ings or contents. In such cases, a more in-depth fire hazard
mattresses,beddingandothersleepproductsareexcludedfrom
assessment should be conducted to ensure that all of the
the definition of upholstered seating furniture.
changes together have demonstrated a predicted level of fire
3.3.4 upholstery cover material, n—the outermost layer of
safety for the new design which is at least equal to that for the
fabric or related material used to enclose the main support
design in established use, in order to permit the use of the new
system or upholstery materials, or both, used in the furniture
upholstered seating furniture item.
item.
4.4.3.2 Alternatively,thenewdesignmaystillbeacceptable
3.3.5 upholsterymaterial,n—thepadding,stuffing,orfilling
if the predicted level of fire safety is commensurate with new
material used in a furniture item, which may be either loose or
stated fire safety objectives developed in advance.
attached, enclosed by an upholstery cover material, or located
4.4.4 The new upholstered seating furniture item offers
between the upholstery cover material and support system, if
some safety advantages and some safety disadvantages over
present.
the item in established use.An example of this outcome could
3.3.5.1 Discussion—This includes, but is not limited to,
be increased smoke obscuration with decreased heat release.
material, such as foams, cotton batting, polyester fiberfill,
Then,amoreindepthfirehazardassessmentwouldhavetobe
bonded cellulose, or down.
conducted to balance the advantages and disadvantages.
4.5 If the patient room does not contain an upholstered
4. Significance and Use
seating furniture item, then the fire hazard assessment impli-
4.1 This guide is intended for use by those undertaking the
cations of the introduction of an upholstered seating furniture
developmentoffirehazardassessmentsforupholsteredseating
item should be analyzed in the same way as in 4.4. The fire
furniture in health care occupancies.
safetyshouldthenbecomparedwiththatachievedintheroom
inestablisheduse(whichhasnoupholsteredseatingfurniture).
4.2 As a guide this document provides information on an
The same analysis would also apply if an additional uphol-
approach to development of a fire hazard assessment, but fixed
stered furniture item is being considered for introduction in a
procedures are not established. Section 1.7 describes some
patient room: the fire hazard assessment should compare the
cautions to be taken into account.
fire safety implications of the addition.
4.3 Afirehazardassessmentdevelopedfollowingthisguide
4.5.1 An additional upholstered furniture item adds to the
should specify all steps required to determine fire hazard
fuelloadofaroom.Thus,ananalysissuchasthatin4.4would
measuresforwhichsafetythresholdsorpass/failcriteriacanbe
offer options 4.4.2 through 4.4.4 only.
meaningfully set by responsible officials using the standard.
4.6 Following the analysis described in 4.4, a fire hazard
4.4 Afire hazard assessment developed as a result of using
assessment developed following the procedures in this guide
this guide should be able to assess a new item of upholstered
would reach a conclusion regarding the desirability of the
seating furniture being considered for use in a certain health
furniture product studied.
care facility, and reach one of the conclusions in 4.4.1 – 4.4.4.
4.4.1 The new upholstered seating furniture item is safer, in 4.7 An alternative to the analysis based on the anticipated
termsofpredictedfireperformance,thantheoneinestablished fire performance of the materials or products contained in the
use. Then, the new product would be desirable, from the point patient room is the use of active fire protection measures, such
of view of fire safety. as fire suppression sprinklers. Active fire protection involves
E2280 − 21
measures such as automatic sprinklers and alarm systems, they are present in the health care facility or whether they are
while passive fire protection involves using materials that are fire fighters coming from outside the facility.
difficult to burn and give off low heat and smoke if they do 6.1.5 In some health care facilities, the approach to patient
burn. Traditional prescriptive requirements are based exclu- fire safety involves protection in place. In such cases, the time
sively on passive fire protection, with the common approach for safe evacuation should be considered to be zero.The effect
beingtodescribethefireteststobemetforeveryproperty.The ofthisapproachisthatuntenableconditionscannotbeallowed
opposite extreme is based entirely on active fire protection, to develop in the patient room.
which assumes that active fire protection measures (mostly
6.2 A potential secondary fire safety objective, considered
sprinklers) ensure fire safety. The fire safety record of sprin-
supportive of the primary objective (but less comprehensive)
klers is excellent, but not flawless. Moreover, neither approach
and more readily measurable, is to prevent flashover inside the
givesthetypeofflexibilitythatistheinherentadvantageoffire
fireroom.Thismayrequiredrasticreductionsinthetotalroom
hazard and fire risk assessments.
fuel load (see also NFPA Guide 555).
4.7.1 Note that the activation of automatic fire suppression
NOTE 1—Flashover is a crucial phenomenon (1). In this guide the
sprinklers does not ensure a safe level of smoke obscuration.
onsetofflashoverisconsideredtooccurwhentheupperlayertemperature
4.8 This guide provides information on a different type of
reaches600°Corwhentheradiantheatfluxatthefloorreaches20kW/m
(see 3.2.4).
fire hazard assessment than Guide E2061. While Guide E2061
considers an entire occupancy, namely a rail transportation
6.2.1 Analyses of fire statistics show that the vast majority
vehicle, this guide addresses a specific product, namely uphol-
of fire fatalities in the United States occur in fires that have
stered furniture.
gone to flashover (2). In fact, fire statistics are tabulated in the
United States, by NFPA, according to a concept roughly
5. Procedure
equivalent to flashover, namely according to whether there has
been “flame damage beyond the room,” which does not occur
5.1 The procedure for conducting a fire hazard assessment
ifthefiredoesnotprogressbeyondthepre-flashoverstage,but
onupholsteredseatingfurnitureinpatientroomsofhealthcare
doesifflashoverisreachedandburningcontinues (2).Thus,in
occupancies is given in Section 7, for the fire safety objectives
thisanalysis,ifafirespreadsbeyondoftheroomoforiginitis
in Section 6. This requires applying the design considerations
considered to have reached flashover.
in Section 8, for the scenarios considered in Section 9, and
under the assumptions on patient rooms and patient room 6.2.1.1 If analysis shows that the flame damage outside of
theroomoforiginhasbeencausedbyafactor,suchasaflying
occupancy given in Section 10. The test methods to be used
shouldbechosenfromamongthoselistedinAppendixX1and brand, without flashover having occurred, the hazard assess-
ment should take this into account.
some calculation methods are listed in Appendix X5.
6.3 In the primary fire safety objective, tenability (see 3.3.1
6. Fire Safety Objectives
and 3.3.2) is assessed on the basis of fire effects on the
6.1 The primary fire safety objective is to ensure the safe
occupants, including both direct effects, such as heat, toxic
(unharmed)evacuationorremovalofallpatientsthreatenedby gases or oxygen deprivation, and indirect effects, such as
fire to an area of refuge in the event of a fire. reduced visibility due to smoke obscuration. A tenable envi-
6.1.1 This is achieved if the time required, in the event of a ronment will therefore prevent loss of life and reduce the
fire,toevacuatethethreatenedareaislessthanthetimeforthe likelihood of harm, including non-fatal injury to individuals.
firetocreateuntenableconditions(preferablyforthefirenotto 6.3.1 Levels of tenability need to be set to develop a fire
create conditions that cause harm to people, whenever pos- hazard assessment.
sible) in the patient room or along the evacuation path. The 6.3.2 The default tenability criteria should be the values
evacuationtimeincludesthetimerequiredfortheoccupantsto specified in Table X10.1. Appendix X10 also contains addi-
reach, or be transported to, a safe location and notification
tionaldiscussionontenabilitycriteria,andshouldbeconsulted.
time. If the developer of the fire hazard assessment or the specifier
6.1.1.1 As noted in 6.5, this fire safety objective does not
require it, one or more of the default tenability criteria from
address individuals intimate with the ignition. Table X10.1 can be amended to satisfy the corresponding
6.1.2 The time to untenability is the shortest time until
needs. In such case, an explanation should be given as to why
untenable conditions are created for any occupant starting at the default criteria have been modified.
anylocationwithinthethreatenedareaoralongtheevacuation
6.3.3 Inhealthcareoccupancies,thehealthcarestaffshould
path. be aware of specific requirements for certain patients, which
6.1.3 As this guide addresses the consequences of the
must be taken into account for the appropriate areas.
fire-related properties of the upholstered furniture used, the 6.3.4 Temperature and heat: Investigations of the tenability
upholstered furniture used should not decrease tenability.
in a fire scenario have shown the maximum temperatures
6.1.4 The time required for evacuation or removal of which human beings can withstand (3-5), the maximum
patients to an area of refuge will be a function of the time convected heat humans can tolerate (6), and the heat flux
required for safety personnel to arrive at the scene of the fire, required to blister or burn skin (7-9).
which will depend, in turn, on the fire detection and fire
suppression devices present in the patient room or its vicinity
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end
andontheproximityofthesafetypersonnel,includingwhether of this standard.
E2280 − 21
6.3.5 Smoke toxicity: Investigations conducted of the tox- particular measures need to be taken to prevent the hazard to
icity of smoke of individual gases and of materials have patients from increasing due to specific damage to certain
resulted in knowledge about the effects of the primary toxic equipment.
gases (10-15),andtheoveralleffectsofsmoketoxicity (16-19).
Such work has shown that results of standard toxicity tests on
7. Steps in Conducting a Fire Hazard Assessment
materials are less helpful for fire hazard assessment than either
7.1 Fire hazard assessment begins by choosing fire safety
analyses of emissions of individual gases over time or calcu-
objective(s)tobeachieved.ThisstepisdescribedinSection6.
lations based on the overall amount of smoke emitted (6,17,
7.2 Fire hazard assessment requires specification of the
18). Furthermore, 2001 bioassay work on rodents over various
design to be assessed, in a form that permits the fire safety
exposure periods has indicated that the effects of smoke on
performance of the design to be tested and modeled. This step
incapacitation and lethality from smoke toxicity can be as-
3 3
is described in Section 8.
signed to smoke concentration levels of 17g⁄m to 27 g/m
3 3
and 21g⁄m to 37 g/m respectively (20), which is consistent
7.3 Fire hazard assessment requires specification of the fire
with the results of the survey conducted on all previous scenarios for which the design will be required to meet the
3 3
bioassaywork:15g/m and30g/m respectively (21).Various
objectives. This step is described in Section 9.
ways have been presented on how to combine one or more of
7.4 Fire hazard assessment requires specification of any
thesetenabilityeffects,indocumentationfortheNISTprogram
additional assumptions, such as conditions of the environment
HAZARD I and in a review by Purser, (6,22,23).
and characteristics of the anticipated occupants, in the assess-
6.3.6 Smoke obscuration: Smoke obscuration (also known
ment. This step is described in Section 10.
as smoke opacity) does not cause harm in and of itself.
7.5 Fire hazard assessment requires the use of testing and
However,itseriouslyhinderseaseofescapeandeaseofrescue
calculation methods to determine whether the objectives are
of trapped fire victims. Investigations have been able to
expected to be met by a specified design for a specified fire
quantify the restrictions to escape imposed by smoke obscura-
scenario, under the specified assumptions. The calculations to
tion (24-26)andtoproposereasonablevisibilitylimits.Avalue
beperformedaredescribedinSection11,andtheselectionand
of Total Smoke Released of 1,000 m in a “standard room” is
qualifying of calculation methods for the assessment are
a criterion used in codes based on this concept (27,28). (See
described in Section 12.
Appendix X7).
7.6 For the fire hazard assessment procedure to be valid, it
6.4 Whenconductingthisfirehazardassessmentthewelfare
is necessary that the calculation methods and the fire-test-
andevacuationofindividualswithdisabilities(Americanswith
response characteristics used produce valid estimates of suc-
Disabilities Act) must be considered with particular care.
cess or failure in achievement of the fire safety objectives,
6.5 A fire safety objective of this guide is to protect the
given the specified fire scenario(s).
occupants not intimate with the initial fire development from
7.7 Fire hazard assessment finds a specified design to be
loss of life and to improve the survivability of those who are
acceptable if, under the specified assumptions, each of the
intimate with the fire development (see NFPA 101). The fire
objectives will be met when a health care facility patient room
safety of those individuals intimate with the fire development
is involved in a fire, for each of the specified fire scenarios.
cannot be guaranteed through decisions based on the design of
7.7.1 It is advisable for the validity of the fire hazard
the upholstered furniture product.
assessment procedure to be confirmed by peer review.
6.5.1 An individual is deemed to be intimate with the fire
development if that individual is located in the immediate
8. Use of Design Specifications in Calculations for
vicinity of the ignition source, typically in contact with it.
Estimates of Fire Hazard
6.5.2 The concept of an individual being intimate with the
fire development is much more restrictive than being in the
8.1 Theissueofdesignofproducts,orofhealthcarepatient
room of fire origin. If a compartment has more than one
rooms as a whole, can have significant impact on fire safety.
occupant,eachoccupyingtheirownbed,forexample,ifoneof
Design specifications can be used as input into the calculation
themisintimatewiththefiredevelopment,theotheronewould
methods of a fire hazard assessment. However, for design
probably not be considered to be.
specifications to be useful, they cannot be expressed in vague
terms but must be expressed as either numerical values or as
6.6 The user needs to consider the inclusion of a final fire
other instructions, for example equations, compatible with the
safety objective, which is to prevent fire fatalities or serious
fire hazard assessment calculation method used.
injuries due to fire effects to the fire fighters responding to an
8.1.1 Once expressed as numerical or other specific values,
incident.
design specifications are a source for input variables for fire
6.7 The user also needs to consider that evacuation efforts
hazard assessment. For example, design specifications will
maybeaffectedbyongoinghealthcareemergencies,unrelated
include specification of the materials to be used in the room
to the fire, which may affect the availability of rescue person-
linings, including ceilings, walls, and floors. The calculations
nel.
required to assess whether flashover will be prevented in the
6.8 Theuseralsoneedstoconsiderthepotentialeffectofthe patient room (an objective specified in 6.2) will require heat
fire (and the smoke) on the life-sustaining and health-care absorption parameters for the room linings.These heat absorp-
equipment used in the health care facility, to assess whether tionparameterswillnotbeidenticaltothedesignspecifications
E2280 − 21
for the room lining materials but will be derivable from these in the actual fire performance of components which have been
specifications by reference to data from established test meth- assessed as part of a composite system.
ods. Because this guide does not specify the models or
8.3.3 It is likely that design specifications of any finished
calculation methods to be used, it follows that it cannot list the
product with different component materials will not normally
input variables that will be required or the appropriate proce-
be available (from the suppliers of the individual materials or
dures to use in deriving those input variables from design
components that go into them) in a form suitable for applica-
specifications.
tion of fire hazard assessment. Manufacturers of such products
8.1.2 A fire hazard assessment is an evaluation of a com-
cannot normally be expected to have developed data on
plete design which addresses certain fire safety objectives.
characteristics that are not part of existing sets of requirements
Therefore, the design specifications used must address and
or recommendations for their products. Similarly, suppliers of
include all relevant products and design features used, includ-
individual materials cannot be expected to identify or provide
ing those specified by conventional prescriptive practices.
products, components, or materials, based exclusively on the
Thus, a fire hazard assessment of a remodeling or redesign
kinds of design specifications required for fire hazard assess-
cannot be limited to the parts of the design being changed.
ment. Therefore, suppliers of such products may require the
Rather, a fire hazard assessment of a redesign carried out
translation of the performance specifications into conventional
according to the practices presented in this guide must address
specifications for the individual materials.
the patient room, including contents, and its surroundings, in
8.3.3.1 Thus, an alternative approach should exist whereby
its entirety.
fire safety objectives are permitted to be achieved by meeting
certain sets of fire-test-response characteristics of individual
8.2 In connection with this guide, the term “design” refers
materials or products, if fire loss experience has shown that
both to the general arrangement of the patient room (for
such sets of requirements have led to suitable fire safety.
example, size, location of openings, number and configuration
However, selective use of parts of the methodology in this
of furnishings, as well as to whether furnishings are fixed in
guide and of individual fire-test-response characteristics does
place) and to the materials, products, and components used to
not satisfy the fire safety objectives of this guide.This guide is
build the patient room.The development of such designs often
not suitable for use in developing a fire hazard assessment
involves decisions which include tradeoffs and ad hoc benefit
except in its entirety.
analyses, and is a traditional approach.
8.2.1 The design should also consider items which are 8.3.4 Aesthetic design, as well as geometric and spatial
configuration of the individual furnishing items, can have
brought into the patient room for occasional use.This includes
medical equipment such as an oxygen tank or breathing significant influence on the ignition and burning properties of
all items used for room furnishings and contents.
apparatus. Other examples are mattress overlays (such as
decubitus pads) or wheelchairs. In some cases, such temporary
8.4 A particular choice of material and material combina-
furnishings can provide a fire scenario of greater severity than
tions (for fabric, padding, and interliner, if present) in uphol-
is usually considered for this occupancy (see also 9.5).
stered furniture can have the effect of delaying fire develop-
8.3 Design specifications for products, components, and
ment or even of preventing a fire from becoming self
materials should include fire-test-response characteristics. The
propagating. Furthermore, the concept used to increase fire
test methods from Appendix X1 should be used to develop
safety (such as improved fire performance of the materials,
these fire-test-response characteristics.Alternatively, other test
incorporation of upholstery barriers, redesign of furniture
methods may also be used, provided the tests chosen comply
construction features, or prevention of transport of furniture
with the criteria of 8.3.1 and 8.3.2.
items as part of variations in room layout) can affect the
8.3.1 This guide does not provide a required test method to
resulting fire hazard. Several preliminary fire research projects
assess any fire-test-response characteristic. The developer of a
have investigated the role of materials and product design
fire hazard assessment will need to provide evidence of the
characteristics on the fire properties of the room contents and
validity of any test method chosen for use in testing of
furnishings (31-52).
components or composites.
8.5 The construction features which are a part of the
8.3.2 ThetestmethodsreferencedinAppendixX1:(a)have
furniture item design can be critical. Important factors for
been designed to yield results in fire safety engineering units,
considerationincludethepresenceorabsenceofarmrests,gaps
which are appropriate for fire hazard assessment and (b)
between various cushion areas, internal cavities, dust covers,
measure heat release rate, which has been demonstrated to be
crevice or entrapment areas, and skirts. Other factors include
an essential component of fire hazard assessment (25,26,29,
the shape and construction of the back, the size of the gap
30). The concept of restricting fuel load is described in
between back and seat, the type of threads used, and the
Appendix X2.
relative dimensions of the various materials used at each
8.3.2.1 Thechoiceofanytestmethodisnon-mandatoryand
location.
the developer of a fire hazard assessment will need to provide
evidence of its validity for use in testing of materials or
9. Fire Scenarios of Concern
products for use patient rooms of health care occupancies (see
also 7.7.1). Design and quality control of component materials 9.1 The fire scenarios in 9.2 are designed to represent the
critically affects the precision of composite fire test results. spectrum of most likely fires involving upholstered seating
Therefore, emphasis should be placed on ensuring consistency furniture in the patient rooms of health care occupancies.
E2280 − 21
9.1.1 When prevention of flashover is one of the objectives adetaileddescriptionofitmustbeprovidedbeforeundertaking
(see 6.2), the performance of upholstered furniture that be- the fire hazard assessment.
comesinvolvedinthefireonlyatthetimeoforafterflashover,
9.3 NFPAdevelopsstatisticsoffiresinfacilitiesthatcarefor
either in the room of fire origin or in a second room, need not
the sick, for example in (53).
be assessed in terms of the room of fire origin (see 9.2.6).
9.4 The application of this guide to a fire hazard assessment
9.2 Specific fire scenarios considered in this guide.
of upholstered furniture items in rooms other than patient
9.2.1 Upholstered furniture item is first ignited, as an
rooms, for example lounges or cafeterias, would require
eventual consequence of smoldering ignition by cigarettes.
additional considerations and is beyond the scope of the
9.2.2 Upholstered furniture item is first item ignited, by
present document. If the fire starts in a room outside of the
directignitionfromasmallopenflamesource,suchasamatch,
patient room, and spreads into it, that fire must be considered
lighter or candle.
to have already become fully developed before it involves the
9.2.3 Upholstered furniture item is first item ignited, by
producttobeassessed,namelytheupholsteredfurniturewithin
direct ignition from a large source, such as a radiant heater. the patient room (see 6.2.1 and 9.2.6.4).
9.2.4 Upholstered furniture item is first item ignited, by
9.5 The enumeration of fire scenarios in 9.2 assumes that
direct ignition (from either of the type of sources in 9.2.1 and
other fire scenarios either are less severe, and therefore will
9.2.2), accentuated by an accelerant, such as a spilled flam-
leadtoachievementofthefiresafetyobjectives,withrespectto
mable liquid (or some intentional action, such as vandalism)
upholstered furniture, if the design achieves the objectives for
(see also Appendix X3).
thespecifiedfirescenarios,orarelesslikelyandthereforeneed
9.2.5 The upholstered furniture item is the second item
notbeconsideredaspartofthefirehazardassessment(seealso
ignited, prior to flashover, as a result of heat released by the
8.2.1).
first item ignited. The source of heat is likely to be another
furnishing or content item. This scenario is included since the
10. Assumptions Regarding Patient Room
concept of secondary ignition of products allows the treatment
10.1 Patient Room Design and Layout:
of such fires. Note that, for the purposes of this guide to fire
10.1.1 The specific patient room layout must be defined to
hazardassessment,theupholsteredfurnitureitemisassumedto
conduct this fire hazard assessment.
be either the first or the second item ignited only.
10.1.2 An example patient room involves a room 9m long,
9.2.6 If the upholstered furniture item is not ignited until
3.8m wide and 2.4m high, with a single door 2m high and
flashover, by other ignition sources within the room, the effect
1m wide, which is assumed to be open. The walls are
of the upholstered furniture item need not be assessed further
estimated to be covered by ca. 16mm (nominal 0.63in.)
in terms of the room of fire origin.
gypsum-board type X, itself covered by wallpaper (thermal
9.2.6.1 The rationale for 9.2.6 is that, if the product is not
conductivity:0.14W⁄(m·K);density:770kg⁄m ;specificheat:
burninguntilflashover,oruntilflashoverisinevitable,itcanbe
900J⁄(kg·K)) and the ceiling by ca. 15mm (0.59in.) acoustic
assumed that the product is likely to have little effect on
tile (thermal conductivity: 0.058W⁄(m·K); density: 290kg⁄m
whether the room will get to flashover. Moreover, in practice,
; specific heat: 1340J⁄(kg·K)), with concrete flooring (ca.
there is little, if any, statistical information available on fires
12mm (0.47in.), thermal conductivity: 1.6W⁄(m·K); density:
wheretheitemisneither(a)thefirstorseconditemignitednor
2400kg⁄m ; specific heat: 800J⁄(kg·K)). The ceiling is as-
(b) burning before flashover occurs.
sumed to be horizontal (not beamed or sloping), and to have a
9.2.6.2 After flashover, the room of fire origin has ceased to
smoke detector, but no fire suppression sprinklers. This room
be tenable. However, the fire may still impact the survival of
containstwobeds,twobedsidetables,eachoneadjacenttoone
occupants of other rooms. Thus, the impact of the fire on
bed and two chairs, each located just past the bedside table
occupantsofotherrooms,afterflashoverintheroomoforigin,
from the bed, as well as some floor covering system (See
would still need to be addressed. Flashover in the room of
...

This document is not an ASTM standard and is intended only to provide the user of an ASTM standard an indication of what changes have been made to the previous version. Because
it may not be technically possible to adequately depict all changes accurately, ASTM recommends that users consult prior editions as appropriate. In all cases only the current version
of the standard as published by ASTM is to be considered the official document.
Designation: E2280 − 17 E2280 − 21 An American National Standard
Standard Guide for
Fire Hazard Assessment of the Effect of Upholstered
Seating Furniture Within Patient Rooms of Health Care
Facilities
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2280; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
INTRODUCTION
The traditional approach to codes and standards is the specification of individual fire-test-response
requirements for each material, component or product placed in a certain environment and deemed
important to ensure fire safety. This practice has been in place for so long that it gives a significant
level of comfort: a manufacturers knows what is required to comply with the specifications and
specifiers apply the requirements. Implicit assumptions, not stated, are that the use of the prescribed
requirements ensures an adequate level of safety. There is no need to impose any change on those
manufacturers who supply safe systems meeting existing prescriptive requirements. However, as new
materials and products are developed, manufacturers, designers, and specifiers often desire the
flexibility to choose how the overall safety requirements are to be met. Thus, it is the responsibility
of the developer of an alternative approach to state explicitly the assumptions being made to produce
the output. The way to generate explicit and valid assumptions is to provide a performance-based
approach, based on test methods providing data in engineering units, suitable for use in fire safety
engineering calculations, as this guide provides. The resulting fire hazard assessment focuses on
upholstered seating furniture items within patient rooms in health care occupancies. This requires
developing the fire scenarios to be considered and the effect of all contents and design considerations
within the patient room which are potentially able to affect the resulting fire hazard. This offers
opportunities for innovation, and ingenuity, without compromising safety.
1. Scope Scope*
1.1 This is a guide to developing fire hazard assessments for upholstered seating furniture, within patient rooms of health care
occupancies. As such, it provides methods and contemporary fire safety engineering techniques to develop a fire hazard assessment
for use in specifications for upholstered seating furniture in such occupancies.
1.2 Hazard assessment is an estimation of the potential severity of the fires that can develop with certain products in defined
scenarios, once the incidents have occurred. Hazard assessment does not address the likelihood of a fire occurring, but is based
on the premise that an ignition has occurred.
1.3 Because it is a guide, this document cannot be used for regulation, nor does it give definitive instructions on how to conduct
a fire hazard assessment.
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E05 on Fire Standards and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E05.15 on Furnishings and Contents.
Current edition approved Dec. 15, 2017Dec. 15, 2021. Published January 2018January 2022. Originally approved in 2003. Last previous edition approved in 20132017
as E2280-13-17. DOI: 10.1520/E2280-17.10.1520/E2280-21.
*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2280 − 21
1.4 This guide is intended to provide assistance to those interested in mitigating the potential damage from fires associated with
upholstered furniture in patient rooms in health care occupancies.
1.5 Thus, this guide can be used to help assess the fire hazard of materials, assemblies, or systems intended for use in upholstered
furniture, by providing a standard basis for studying the level of fire safety associated with certain design choices. It can also aid
those interested in designing features appropriate to health care occupancies. Finally, it may be useful to safety personnel in health
care occupancies.
1.6 This guide is a focused application of Guide E1546, which offers help in reference to fire scenarios that are specific to
upholstered furniture in health care occupancies, and includes an extensive bibliography. It differs from Guide E1546 in that it
offers guidance that is specific to the issue of upholstered furniture in patient rooms of health care facilities, rather than general
guidance. Appendix X11 includes some statistics on the magnitude of the potential problem in the U.S.
1.7 A fire hazard assessment conducted in accordance with this guide is strongly dependent on the limitations in the factors
described in 1.7.1 – 1.7.4.
1.7.1 Input data (including their precision or accuracy).
1.7.2 Appropriate test procedures.
1.7.3 Fire models or calculation procedures that are simultaneously relevant, accurate and appropriate.
1.7.4 Advancement of scientific knowledge.
1.8 This guide addresses specific fire scenarios which begin inside or outside of the patient room. However, the upholstered
furniture under consideration is inside the patient room.
1.9 The fire scenarios used for this hazard assessment guide are described in 9.2. They involve the upholstered furniture item
within the patient room as the first or second item ignited, in terms of the room of fire origin. Additionally, consideration should
be given to the effect of the patient room upholstered furniture item on the tenability of occupants of rooms other than the room
of fire origin, and on that of potential rescuers.
1.10 This guide does not claim to address all fires that can occur in patient rooms in health care occupancies. In particular, fires
with more severe initiating conditions than those assumed in the analysis may pose more severe fire hazard than that calculated
using this guide (see also 9.5).
1.11 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.12 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility
of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of
regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.13 This fire standard cannot be used to provide quantitative measures.
1.14 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization
established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued
by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
D123 Terminology Relating to Textiles
E162 Test Method for Surface Flammability of Materials Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or contact ASTM Customer Service at [e-mail]. For Annual Book of ASTM Standards
volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the ASTM website.
E2280 − 21
E176 Terminology of Fire Standards
E603 Guide for Room Fire Experiments
E648 Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
E662 Test Method for Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials
E906 Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using a Thermopile Method
E1321 Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties
E1352 Test Method for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Mock-Up Upholstered Furniture Assemblies
E1353 Test Methods for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture
E1354 Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption
Calorimeter
E1355 Guide for Evaluating the Predictive Capability of Deterministic Fire Models
E1472 Guide for Documenting Computer Software for Fire Models (Withdrawn 2011)
E1474 Test Method for Determining the Heat Release Rate of Upholstered Furniture and Mattress Components or Composites
Using a Bench Scale Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
E1537 Test Method for Fire Testing of Upholstered Furniture
E1546 Guide for Development of Fire-Hazard-Assessment Standards
E1590 Test Method for Fire Testing of Mattresses
E1591 Guide for Obtaining Data for Fire Growth Models
E1740 Test Method for Determining the Heat Release Rate and Other Fire-Test-Response Characteristics of Wall Covering or
Ceiling Covering Composites Using a Cone Calorimeter
E2061 Guide for Fire Hazard Assessment of Rail Transportation Vehicles
E2067 Practice for Full-Scale Oxygen Consumption Calorimetry Fire Tests
E2257 Test Method for Room Fire Test of Wall and Ceiling Materials and Assemblies
F1534 Test Method for Determining Changes in Fire-Test-Response Characteristics of Cushioning Materials After Water
Leaching
2.2 CA Standards:
CA Technical Bulletin 116, “Requirements, Test Procedure and Apparatus for Testing the Flame Retardance of Upholstered
Furniture,” January 1980
CA Technical Bulletin 117, “Requirements, Test Procedures, and Apparatus for Testing the Flame Retardance of Resilient
Filling Materials Used in Upholstery Furniture,” January 1980
2.3 NFPA Codes and Standards:
NFPA 101 Code to Safety to Life from Fire in Buildings and Structures
NFPA 265 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile Wall Coverings
NFPA 286 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish
NFPA 289 Standard Method of Fire Test for Individual Fuel Packages
NFPA 555 Guide on Methods for Decreasing the Probability of Flashover
NFPA 901 Uniform Coding for Fire Protection
2.4 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Standards:
ISO 4880 Burning Behaviour of Textiles and Textile Products—Vocabulary
ISO 9705 Full Scale Room Fire Test for Surface Products
ISO 13943 Fire Safety—Vocabulary
2.5 Federal Standards:
Americans with Disabilities Act
FED STD 191A Textile Test Method 5830
2.6 Underwriters Laboratories Standard:
UL 1975 Standard Fire Tests for Foamed Plastics Used for Decorative Purposes
2.7 International Code Council Codes:
IBC International Building Code, 2001 Supplement to 2000 Edition
IFC International Fire Code, 2001 Supplement to 2000 Edition
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on www.astm.org.
Available from California Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation,Household Goods and Services (BHGS), State of California, Department of Consumer
Affairs, 3485 Orange Grove Avenue, North Highlands, CA, 95660-5595.95660-5595, https://bhgs.dca.ca.gov.
Available from National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269-9101.
Available from International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 1 rue de Varembé, Case postale 56, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland or from American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036.
Available from General Services Administration, Specifications Activity, Printed Materials Supply Division, Building 197, Naval Weapons Plant, Washington, DC, 20407.
Available from Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Corporate Progress, 333 Pfingsten Rd., Northbrook, IL 60062.
Available from International Code Council (ICC), 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600, Falls Church, VA 22041.
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2.8 AATCC Standards:
AATCC Test Method 86 - 2005 Drycleaning: Durability of Applied Designs and Finishes
AATCC Test Method 124 - 2006 Appearance of Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering
3. Terminology
3.1 For definitions of terms used in this guide and associated with fire issues refer to the terminology contained in Terminology
E176 and ISO 13943. In case of conflict, the definitions given in Terminology E176 shall prevail. For definitions of terms used
in this guide and associated with textile issues refer to the terminology contained in Terminology D123 and ISO 4880. In case of
conflict, the definitions given in Terminology D123 shall prevail.
3.2 Definitions: Definitions contained in Terminology E176 deemed essential for use with this guide:
3.2.1 fire hazard, n—the potential for harm associated with fire.
3.2.1.1 Discussion—
A fire may pose one or more types of hazard to people, animals, or property. These hazards are associated with the environment
and with a number of fire-test-response characteristics of materials, products, or assemblies including but not limited to ease of
ignition, flame spread, rate of heat release, smoke generation and obscuration, toxicity of combustion products and ease of
extinguishment.
3.2.2 fire performance, n—response of a material, product, or assembly in a specific fire, other than in a fire test involving
controlled conditions (different from fire-test-response characteristic, q.v.).
3.2.2.1 Discussion—
The ASTM Policy on Fire Standards distinguishes between the response of materials, products or assemblies to heat and flame
“under controlled conditions,” which is fire-test-response characteristic, and “under actual fire conditions,” which is fire
performance. Fire performance depends on the occasion or environment and may not be measurable. In view of the limited
availability of fire-performance data, the response to one or more fire tests, appropriately recognized as representing end-use
conditions, is generally used as a predictor of the fire performance of a material, product, or assembly.
3.2.3 fire scenario, n—a detailed description of conditions, including environmental, of one or more of the steps from before
ignition to the completion of combustion in an actual fire, or in a full-scale simulation.
3.2.3.1 Discussion—
The conditions describing a fire scenario, or a group of fire scenarios, are those required for the testing, analysis, or assessment
that is of interest. Typically they are those conditions that can create significant variation in the results. The degree of detail
necessary will depend upon the intended use of the fire scenario. Environmental conditions may be included in a scenario definition
but are not required in all cases. Fire scenarios often define conditions in the early steps of a fire while allowing analysis to calculate
conditions in later steps.
3.2.4 flashover, n—the rapid transition to a state of total surface involvement in a fire of combustible materials within an enclosure.
3.2.4.1 Discussion—
Flashover occurs when the surface temperatures of an enclosure and its contents rise, producing combustible gases and vapors, and
the enclosure heat flux becomes sufficient to heat these gases and vapors to their ignition temperatures. This commonly occurs
when the upper layer temperature reaches 600°C600 °C or when the radiant heat flux at the floor reaches 20 kW/m .
3.2.5 heat release rate, n—the heat evolved from the specimen, per unit of time.
3.2.6 smoke, n—the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion.
3.2.7 upholstered, adj—covered with material (as fabric or padding) to provide a soft surface.
3.3 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.3.1 tenability (of humans to fire-generated conditions), n—the capability of humans to occupy a room without becoming
incapacitated or being killed as a result of a fire.
Available from American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC), One Davis Dr., P.O. Box 12215, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2215.
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3.3.2 tenability limit (of humans to fire-generated conditions) , n—limit at which a human being is rendered physically
incapacitated or dies as a consequence of exposure to one or more factors (such as toxic gases, temperature, heat flux, or smoke
obscuration) generated by a fire.
3.3.3 upholstered seating furniture, n—a unit of interior furnishing that (1) contains any surface that is covered, in whole or in part,
with a fabric or related upholstery cover material, (2) contains upholstery material, and (3) is intended or promoted for sitting upon.
3.3.3.1 Discussion—
For the purpose of this guide, mattresses, bedding and other sleep products are excluded from the definition of upholstered seating
furniture.
3.3.4 upholstery cover material, n—the outermost layer of fabric or related material used to enclose the main support system or
upholstery materials, or both, used in the furniture item.
3.3.5 upholstery material, n—the padding, stuffing, or filling material used in a furniture item, which may be either loose or
attached, enclosed by an upholstery cover material, or located between the upholstery cover material and support system, if present.
3.3.5.1 Discussion—
This includes, but is not limited to, material, such as foams, cotton batting, polyester fiberfill, bonded cellulose, or down.
4. Significance and Use
4.1 This guide is intended for use by those undertaking the development of fire hazard assessments for upholstered seating
furniture in health care occupancies.
4.2 As a guide this document provides information on an approach to development of a fire hazard assessment, but fixed
procedures are not established. Section 1.7 describes some cautions to be taken into account.
4.3 A fire hazard assessment developed following this guide should specify all steps required to determine fire hazard measures
for which safety thresholds or pass/fail criteria can be meaningfully set by responsible officials using the standard.
4.4 A fire hazard assessment developed as a result of using this guide should be able to assess a new item of upholstered seating
furniture being considered for use in a certain health care facility, and reach one of the conclusions in 4.4.1 – 4.4.4.
4.4.1 The new upholstered seating furniture item is safer, in terms of predicted fire performance, than the one in established use.
Then, the new product would be desirable, from the point of view of fire safety.
4.4.2 There is no difference between the predicted fire safety of the new item and the one in established use. Then, there would
be neither advantage nor disadvantage in using the new product, from the point of view of fire safety.
4.4.3 The new upholstered seating furniture item is predicted to be less safe, in terms of fire performance, than the one in
established use. Then, the new item would be less desirable, from the point of view of fire safety than the one in established use.
4.4.3.1 If the new upholstered furniture item is predicted to be less safe, in terms of fire performance, than the one in established
use, a direct substitution of the products would provide a lower level of safety and the new product should not be used, without
other compensatory changes being made. A new upholstered furniture product can, however, be made acceptable if, and only if,
it is part of a complete, comprehensive, fire safety design for the patient room. Such a patient room redesign should include one
or more of the following features: use of an alternative layout (albeit one that cannot be altered by the patient room users) or
increased use of automatic fire protection systems or changes in other furnishings or contents. In such cases, a more in-depth fire
hazard assessment should be conducted to ensure that all of the changes together have demonstrated a predicted level of fire safety
for the new design which is at least equal to that for the design in established use, in order to permit the use of the new upholstered
seating furniture item.
4.4.3.2 Alternatively, the new design may still be acceptable if the predicted level of fire safety is commensurate with new stated
fire safety objectives developed in advance.
4.4.4 The new upholstered seating furniture item offers some safety advantages and some safety disadvantages over the item in
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established use. An example of this outcome could be increased smoke obscuration with decreased heat release. Then, a more in
depth fire hazard assessment would have to be conducted to balance the advantages and disadvantages.
4.5 If the patient room does not contain an upholstered seating furniture item, then the fire hazard assessment implications of the
introduction of an upholstered seating furniture item should be analyzed in the same way as in 4.4. The fire safety should then be
compared with that achieved in the room in established use (which has no upholstered seating furniture). The same analysis would
also apply if an additional upholstered furniture item is being considered for introduction in a patient room: the fire hazard
assessment should compare the fire safety implications of the addition.
4.5.1 An additional upholstered furniture item adds to the fuel load of a room. Thus, an analysis such as that in 4.4 would offer
options 4.4.2 through 4.4.4 only.
4.6 Following the analysis described in 4.4, a fire hazard assessment developed following the procedures in this guide would reach
a conclusion regarding the desirability of the furniture product studied.
4.7 An alternative to the analysis based on the anticipated fire performance of the materials or products contained in the patient
room is the use of active fire protection measures, such as fire suppression sprinklers. Active fire protection involves measures such
as automatic sprinklers and alarm systems, while passive fire protection involves using materials that are difficult to burn and give
off low heat and smoke if they do burn. Traditional prescriptive requirements are based exclusively on passive fire protection, with
the common approach being to describe the fire tests to be met for every property. The opposite extreme is based entirely on active
fire protection, which assumes that active fire protection measures (mostly sprinklers) ensure fire safety. The fire safety record of
sprinklers is excellent, but not flawless. Moreover, neither approach gives the type of flexibility that is the inherent advantage of
fire hazard and fire risk assessments.
4.7.1 Note that the activation of automatic fire suppression sprinklers does not ensure a safe level of smoke obscuration.
4.8 This guide provides information on a different type of fire hazard assessment than Guide E2061. While Guide E2061 considers
an entire occupancy, namely a rail transportation vehicle, this guide addresses a specific product, namely upholstered furniture.
5. Procedure
5.1 The procedure for conducting a fire hazard assessment on upholstered seating furniture in patient rooms of health care
occupancies is given in Section 7, for the fire safety objectives in Section 6. This requires applying the design considerations in
Section 8, for the scenarios considered in Section 9, and under the assumptions on patient rooms and patient room occupancy given
in Section 10. The test methods to be used should be chosen from among those listed in Appendix X1 and some calculation
methods are listed in Appendix X5.
6. Fire Safety Objectives
6.1 The primary fire safety objective is to ensure the safe (unharmed) evacuation or removal of all patients threatened by fire to
an area of refuge in the event of a fire.
6.1.1 This is achieved if the time required, in the event of a fire, to evacuate the threatened area is less than the time for the fire
to create untenable conditions (preferably for the fire not to create conditions that cause harm to people, whenever possible) in the
patient room or along the evacuation path. The evacuation time includes the time required for the occupants to reach, or be
transported to, a safe location and notification time.
6.1.1.1 As noted in 6.5, this fire safety objective does not address individuals intimate with the ignition.
6.1.2 The time to untenability is the shortest time until untenable conditions are created for any occupant starting at any location
within the threatened area or along the evacuation path.
6.1.3 As this guide addresses the consequences of the fire-related properties of the upholstered furniture used, the upholstered
furniture used should not decrease tenability.
6.1.4 The time required for evacuation or removal of patients to an area of refuge will be a function of the time required for safety
personnel to arrive at the scene of the fire, which will depend, in turn, on the fire detection and fire suppression devices present
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in the patient room or its vicinity and on the proximity of the safety personnel, including whether they are present in the health
care facility or whether they are fire fighters coming from outside the facility.
6.1.5 In some health care facilities, the approach to patient fire safety involves protection in place. In such cases, the time for safe
evacuation should be considered to be zero. The effect of this approach is that untenable conditions cannot be allowed to develop
in the patient room.
6.2 A potential secondary fire safety objective, considered supportive of the primary objective (but less comprehensive) and more
readily measurable, is to prevent flashover inside the fire room. This may require drastic reductions in the total room fuel load (see
also NFPA Guide 555).
NOTE 1—Flashover is a crucial phenomenon (1). In this guide the onset of flashover is considered to occur when the upper layer temperature reaches
600°C600 °C or when the radiant heat flux at the floor reaches 20 kW/m (see 3.2.4).
6.2.1 Analyses of fire statistics show that the vast majority of fire fatalities in the United States occur in fires that have gone to
flashover (2). In fact, fire statistics are tabulated in the United States, by NFPA, according to a concept roughly equivalent to
flashover, namely according to whether there has been “flame damage beyond the room,” which does not occur if the fire does not
progress beyond the pre-flashover stage, but does if flashover is reached and burning continues (2). Thus, in this analysis, if a fire
spreads beyond of the room of origin it is considered to have reached flashover.
6.2.1.1 If analysis shows that the flame damage outside of the room of origin has been caused by a factor, such as a flying brand,
without flashover having occurred, the hazard assessment should take this into account.
6.3 In the primary fire safety objective, tenability (see 3.3.1 and 3.3.2) is assessed on the basis of fire effects on the occupants,
including both direct effects, such as heat, toxic gases or oxygen deprivation, and indirect effects, such as reduced visibility due
to smoke obscuration. A tenable environment will therefore prevent loss of life and reduce the likelihood of harm, including
non-fatal injury to individuals.
6.3.1 Levels of tenability need to be set to develop a fire hazard assessment.
6.3.2 The default tenability criteria should be the values specified in Table X10.1. Appendix X10 also contains additional
discussion on tenability criteria, and should be consulted. If the developer of the fire hazard assessment or the specifier require it,
one or more of the default tenability criteria from Table X10.1 can be amended to satisfy the corresponding needs. In such case,
an explanation should be given as to why the default criteria have been modified.
6.3.3 In health care occupancies, the health care staff should be aware of specific requirements for certain patients, which must
be taken into account for the appropriate areas.
6.3.4 Temperature and heat: Investigations of the tenability in a fire scenario have shown the maximum temperatures which human
beings can withstand (3-5), the maximum convected heat humans can tolerate (6), and the heat flux required to blister or burn skin
(7-9).
6.3.5 Smoke toxicity: Investigations conducted of the toxicity of smoke of individual gases and of materials have resulted in
knowledge about the effects of the primary toxic gases (10-15), and the overall effects of smoke toxicity (16-19). Such work has
shown that results of standard toxicity tests on materials are less helpful for fire hazard assessment than either analyses of emissions
of individual gases over time or calculations based on the overall amount of smoke emitted (6,17,18). Furthermore, 2001 bioassay
work on rodents over various exposure periods has indicated that the effects of smoke on incapacitation and lethality from smoke
3 3 3 3
toxicity can be assigned to smoke concentration levels of 1717 g ⁄m to 27 g/m and 2121 g ⁄m to 37 g/m respectively (20), which
3 3
is consistent with the results of the survey conducted on all previous bioassay work: 15 g/m and 30 g/m respectively (21). Various
ways have been presented on how to combine one or more of these tenability effects, in documentation for the NIST program
HAZARD I and in a review by Purser, (6,22,23).
6.3.6 Smoke obscuration: Smoke obscuration (also known as smoke opacity) does not cause harm in and of itself. However, it
seriously hinders ease of escape and ease of rescue of trapped fire victims. Investigations have been able to quantify the restrictions
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of this standard.
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to escape imposed by smoke obscuration (24-26) and to propose reasonable visibility limits. A value of Total Smoke Released of
1,000 m in a “standard room” is a criterion used in codes based on this concept (27,28). (See Appendix X7).
6.4 When conducting this fire hazard assessment the welfare and evacuation of individuals with disabilities (Americans with
Disabilities Act) must be considered with particular care.
6.5 A fire safety objective of this guide is to protect the occupants not intimate with the initial fire development from loss of life
and to improve the survivability of those who are intimate with the fire development (see NFPA 101). The fire safety of those
individuals intimate with the fire development cannot be guaranteed through decisions based on the design of the upholstered
furniture product.
6.5.1 An individual is deemed to be intimate with the fire development if that individual is located in the immediate vicinity of
the ignition source, typically in contact with it.
6.5.2 The concept of an individual being intimate with the fire development is much more restrictive than being in the room of
fire origin. If a compartment has more than one occupant, each occupying their own bed, for example, if one of them is intimate
with the fire development, the other one would probably not be considered to be.
6.6 The user needs to consider the inclusion of a final fire safety objective, which is to prevent fire fatalities or serious injuries
due to fire effects to the fire fighters responding to an incident.
6.7 The user also needs to consider that evacuation efforts may be affected by ongoing health care emergencies, unrelated to the
fire, which may affect the availability of rescue personnel.
6.8 The user also needs to consider the potential effect of the fire (and the smoke) on the life-sustaining and health-care equipment
used in the health care facility, to assess whether particular measures need to be taken to prevent the hazard to patients from
increasing due to specific damage to certain equipment.
7. Steps in Conducting a Fire Hazard Assessment
7.1 Fire hazard assessment begins by choosing fire safety objective(s) to be achieved. This step is described in Section 6.
7.2 Fire hazard assessment requires specification of the design to be assessed, in a form that permits the fire safety performance
of the design to be tested and modeled. This step is described in Section 8.
7.3 Fire hazard assessment requires specification of the fire scenarios for which the design will be required to meet the objectives.
This step is described in Section 9.
7.4 Fire hazard assessment requires specification of any additional assumptions, such as conditions of the environment and
characteristics of the anticipated occupants, in the assessment. This step is described in Section 10.
7.5 Fire hazard assessment requires the use of testing and calculation methods to determine whether the objectives are expected
to be met by a specified design for a specified fire scenario, under the specified assumptions. The calculations to be performed are
described in Section 11, and the selection and qualifying of calculation methods for the assessment are described in Section 12.
7.6 For the fire hazard assessment procedure to be valid, it is necessary that the calculation methods and the fire-test-response
characteristics used produce valid estimates of success or failure in achievement of the fire safety objectives, given the specified
fire scenario(s).
7.7 Fire hazard assessment finds a specified design to be acceptable if, under the specified assumptions, each of the objectives will
be met when a health care facility patient room is involved in a fire, for each of the specified fire scenarios.
7.7.1 It is advisable for the validity of the fire hazard assessment procedure to be confirmed by peer review.
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8. Use of Design Specifications in Calculations for Estimates of Fire Hazard
8.1 The issue of design of products, or of health care patient rooms as a whole, can have significant impact on fire safety. Design
specifications can be used as input into the calculation methods of a fire hazard assessment. However, for design specifications to
be useful, they cannot be expressed in vague terms but must be expressed as either numerical values or as other instructions, for
example equations, compatible with the fire hazard assessment calculation method used.
8.1.1 Once expressed as numerical or other specific values, design specifications are a source for input variables for fire hazard
assessment. For example, design specifications will include specification of the materials to be used in the room linings, including
ceilings, walls, and floors. The calculations required to assess whether flashover will be prevented in the patient room (an objective
specified in 6.2) will require heat absorption parameters for the room linings. These heat absorption parameters will not be identical
to the design specifications for the room lining materials but will be derivable from these specifications by reference to data from
established test methods. Because this guide does not specify the models or calculation methods to be used, it follows that it cannot
list the input variables that will be required or the appropriate procedures to use in deriving those input variables from design
specifications.
8.1.2 A fire hazard assessment is an evaluation of a complete design which addresses certain fire safety objectives. Therefore, the
design specifications used must address and include all relevant products and design features used, including those specified by
conventional prescriptive practices. Thus, a fire hazard assessment of a remodeling or redesign cannot be limited to the parts of
the design being changed. Rather, a fire hazard assessment of a redesign carried out according to the practices presented in this
guide must address the patient room, including contents, and its surroundings, in its entirety.
8.2 In connection with this guide, the term “design” refers both to the general arrangement of the patient room (for example, size,
location of openings, number and configuration of furnishings, as well as to whether furnishings are fixed in place) and to the
materials, products, and components used to build the patient room. The development of such designs often involves decisions
which include tradeoffs and ad hoc benefit analyses, and is a traditional approach.
8.2.1 The design should also consider items which are brought into the patient room for occasional use. This includes medical
equipment such as an oxygen tank or breathing apparatus. Other examples are mattress overlays (such as decubitus pads) or
wheelchairs. In some cases, such temporary furnishings can provide a fire scenario of greater severity than is usually considered
for this occupancy (see also 9.5).
8.3 Design specifications for products, components, and materials should include fire-test-response characteristics. The test
methods from Appendix X1 should be used to develop these fire-test-response characteristics. Alternatively, other test methods
may also be used, provided the tests chosen comply with the criteria of 8.3.1 and 8.3.2.
8.3.1 This guide does not provide a required test method to assess any fire-test-response characteristic. The developer of a fire
hazard assessment will need to provide evidence of the validity of any test method chosen for use in testing of components or
composites.
8.3.2 The test methods referenced in Appendix X1: (a) have been designed to yield results in fire safety engineering units, which
are appropriate for fire hazard assessment and (b) measure heat release rate, which has been demonstrated to be an essential
component of fire hazard assessment (25,26,29,30). The concept of restricting fuel load is described in Appendix X2.
8.3.2.1 The choice of any test method is non-mandatory and the developer of a fire hazard assessment will need to provide
evidence of its validity for use in testing of materials or products for use patient rooms of health care occupancies (see also 7.7.1).
Design and quality control of component materials critically affects the precision of composite fire test results. Therefore, emphasis
should be placed on ensuring consistency in the actual fire performance of components which have been assessed as part of a
composite system.
8.3.3 It is likely that design specifications of any finished product with different component materials will not normally be
available (from the suppliers of the individual materials or components that go into them) in a form suitable for application of fire
hazard assessment. Manufacturers of such products cannot normally be expected to have developed data on characteristics that are
not part of existing sets of requirements or recommendations for their products. Similarly, suppliers of individual materials cannot
be expected to identify or provide products, components, or materials, based exclusively on the kinds of design specifications
required for fire hazard assessment. Therefore, suppliers of such products may require the translation of the performance
specifications into conventional specifications for the individual materials.
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8.3.3.1 Thus, an alternative approach should exist whereby fire safety objectives are permitted to be achieved by meeting certain
sets of fire-test-response characteristics of individual materials or products, if fire loss experience has shown that such sets of
requirements have led to suitable fire safety. However, selective use of parts of the methodology in this guide and of individual
fire-test-response characteristics does not satisfy the fire safety objectives of this guide. This guide is not suitable for use in
developing a fire hazard assessment except in its entirety.
8.3.4 Aesthetic design, as well as geometric and spatial configuration of the individual furnishing items, can have significant
influence on the ignition and burning properties of all items used for room furnishings and contents.
8.4 A particular choice of material and material combinations (for fabric, padding, and interliner, if present) in upholstered
furniture can have the effect of delaying fire development or even of preventing a fire from becoming self propagating.
Furthermore, the concept used to increase fire safety (such as improved fire performance of the materials, incorporation of
upholstery barriers, redesign of furniture construction features, or prevention of transport of furniture items as part of variations
in room layout) can affect the resulting fire hazard. Several preliminary fire research projects have investigated the role of materials
and product design characteristics on the fire properties of the room contents and furnishings (31-52).
8.5 The construction features which are a part of the furniture item design can be critical. Important factors for consideration
include the presence or absence of armrests, gaps between various cushion areas, internal cavities, dust covers, crevice or
entrapment areas, and skirts. Other factors include the shape and construction of the back, the size of the gap between back and
seat, the type of threads used, and the relative dimensions of the various materials used at each location.
9. Fire Scenarios of Concern
9.1 The fire scenarios in 9.2 are designed to represent the spectrum of most likely fires involving upholstered seating furniture in
the patient rooms of health care occupancies.
9.1.1 When prevention of flashover is one of the objectives (see 6.2), the performance of upholstered furniture that becomes
involved in the fire only at the time of or after flashover, either in the room of fire origin or in a second room, need not be assessed
in terms of the room of fire origin (see 9.2.6).
9.2 Specific fire scenarios considered in this guide.
9.2.1 Upholstered furniture item is first ignited, as an eventual consequence of smoldering ignition by cigarettes.
9.2.2 Upholstered furniture item is first item ignited, by direct ignition from a small open flame source, such as a match, lighter
or candle.
9.2.3 Upholstered furniture item is first item ignited, by direct ignition from a large source, such as a radiant heater.
9.2.4 Upholstered furniture item is first item ignited, by direct ignition (from either of the type of sources in 9.2.1 and 9.2.2),
accentuated by an accelerant, such as a spilled flammable liquid (or some intentional action, such as vandalism) (see also Appendix
X3).
9.2.5 The upholstered furniture item is the second item ignited, prior to flashover, as a result of heat released by the first item
ignited. The source of heat is likely to be another furnishing or content item. This scenario is included since the concept of
secondary ignition of products allows the treatment of such fires. Note that, for the purposes of this guide to fire hazard assessment,
the upholstered furniture item is assumed to be either the first or the second item ignited only.
9.2.6 If the upholstered furniture item is not ignited until flashover, by other ignition sources within the room, the effect of the
upholstered furniture item need not be assessed further in terms of the room of fire origin.
9.2.6.1 The rationale for 9.2.6 is that, if the product is not burning until flashover, or until flashover is inevitable, it can be assumed
that the product is likely to have little effect on whether the room will get to flashover. Moreover, in practice, there is little, if any,
statistical information available on fires where the item is neither (a) the first or second item ignited nor (b) burning before
flashover occurs.
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9.2.6.2 After flashover, the room of fire origin has ceased to be tenable. However, the fire may still impact the survival of
occupants of other rooms. Thus, the impact of the fire on occupants of other rooms, after flashover in the room of origin, would
still need to be addressed. Flashover in the room of origin can also impact the evacuation of patients from rooms other than the
room of origin.
9.2.6.3 Thus, once flashover has occurred, consideration may need to be given to the effect of the patient room upholstered
furniture, on an increased heat, smoke obscuration and toxic load on occupants of rooms other than the room of fire origin, and
on potential rescuers.
9.2.6.4 If the fire starts in a room other than the patient room and spreads into the patient room, that fire will already be a flashover
fire before the upholstered furniture item in the patient room is involved (see 6.2.1), and it will be an example of a fire scenario
of the type addressed in 9.2.6.
9.2.7 A specialized fire scenario, other than those listed in 9.2.1 through 9.2.6, resulting from an unusual design, room occupancy
or special circumstances, can also be addressed, but a detailed description of it must be provided before undertaking the fire hazard
assessment.
9.3 NFPA d
...