EN ISO 17636-2:2022
(Main)Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing - Part 2: X- and gamma-ray techniques with digital detectors (ISO 17636-2:2022, Corrected version 2023-02)
Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing - Part 2: X- and gamma-ray techniques with digital detectors (ISO 17636-2:2022, Corrected version 2023-02)
This document specifies techniques of digital radiography with the object of enabling satisfactory and repeatable results. The techniques are based on generally recognized practice and fundamental theory of the subject.
This document applies to the digital radiographic testing of fusion welded joints in metallic materials. It applies to the joints of plates and pipes. Besides its conventional meaning, “pipe”, as used in this document, covers other cylindrical bodies such as tubes, penstocks, boiler drums and pressure vessels.
This document specifies the requirements for digital radiographic X- and gamma-ray testing by either computed radiography (CR) or radiography with digital detector arrays (DDAs) of the welded joints of metallic plates and tubes for the detection of imperfections. It includes manual and automated inspection with DDAs.
Digital detectors provide a digital grey value image which can be viewed and evaluated using a computer (Annex E). This document specifies the recommended procedure for detector selection and radiographic practice. Selection of computer, software, monitor, printer and viewing conditions are important, but are not the main focus of this document. The procedure specified in this document provides the minimum requirements for radiographic practice which permits exposure and acquisition of digital radiographs with equivalent sensitivity for the detection of imperfections as film radiography (specified in ISO 17636-1).
This document does not specify acceptance levels for any of the indications found on the digital radiographs. ISO 10675 provides information on acceptance levels for weld inspection.
If contracting parties apply lower test criteria, it is possible that the quality achieved will be significantly lower than when this document is strictly applied.
Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen - Durchstrahlungsprüfung - Teil 2: Röntgen- und Gammastrahlungstechniken mit digitalen Detektoren (ISO 17636-2:2022, korrigierte Fassung 2023-02)
Dieses Dokument legt Techniken der digitalen Durchstrahlungsprüfung mit dem Ziel fest, zufriedenstellende und wiederholbare Ergebnisse zu erreichen. Die Techniken beruhen auf allgemein anerkannten Vorgehensweisen und den grundlegenden Theorien zum Thema.
Dieses Dokument ist anwendbar für die digitale Durchstrahlungsprüfung von Schmelzschweißverbindungen in metallischen Werkstoffen. Es ist anwendbar für Schweißverbindungen von Platten und Rohren. Neben der konventionellen Bedeutung werden in diesem Dokument unter der Benennung „Rohr“ auch andere zylindrische Körper wie Druckleitungen, Kesseltrommeln und Druckbehälter verstanden.
Dieses Dokument legt die Anforderungen an die digitale Durchstrahlungsprüfung von Schweißverbindungen an Metallplatten und -rohren mit Röntgen- und Gammastrahlen unter Anwendung entweder der Computer-Radiographie (CR) oder der Radiographie mit digitalen Matrixdetektoren (DDA, en: Digital Detector Arrays) fest, die dem Nachweis von Unregelmäßigkeiten dient. Es umfasst die manuelle und automatische Prüfung mittels DDA.
Digitale Detektoren liefern ein Bild mit digitalen Grauwerten, das mit einem Computer betrachtet und ausgewertet werden kann (Anhang E). Dieses Dokument legt die empfohlenen Verfahren für die Auswahl des Detektors und der Durchstrahlungstechnik fest. Die Auswahl von Computer, Software, Monitor, Drucker und Betrachtungsbedingungen ist von Bedeutung, bildet jedoch nicht den Schwerpunkt dieses Dokuments. Das in diesem Dokument festgelegte Verfahren enthält die Mindestanforderungen an das Durchstrahlungsverfahren zur Gewinnung digitaler Durchstrahlungsaufnahmen mit einer Empfindlichkeit für den Nachweis von Unregelmäßigkeiten, die der Radiographie mit Filmen (festgelegt in ISO 17636 1) gleichwertig ist.
Dieses Dokument legt keine Zulässigkeitsgrenzen für Anzeigen in den digitalen Durchstrahlungsaufnahmen fest. ISO 10675 enthält Informationen über Zulässigkeitsgrenzen bei der Prüfung von Schweißnähten (Schweißverbindungen).
Wenn die Vertragspartner niedrigere Prüfkriterien verwenden, ist es möglich, dass die erreichte Güte deutlich niedriger ist als bei strikter Anwendung von diesem Dokument.
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés - Contrôle par radiographie - Partie 2: Techniques par rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs numériques (ISO 17636-2:2022, Version corrigée 2023-02)
Le présent document spécifie les techniques de radiographie numérique permettant d'obtenir des résultats satisfaisants et reproductibles. Les techniques reposent sur une pratique généralement reconnue et sur la théorie fondamentale en la matière.
Le présent document s'applique au contrôle par radiographie numérique des assemblages soudés par fusion de matériaux métalliques. Il s'applique aux assemblages de plaques et de tubes. Outre sa signification conventionnelle, le terme « tube », tel qu'il est utilisé dans le présent document, couvre d'autres corps cylindriques, tels que tuyaux, conduites forcées, réservoirs de chaudières et appareils à pression.
Le présent document spécifie les exigences relatives au contrôle par radiographie numérique à rayons X et gamma des assemblages soudés de tubes métalliques pour la détection des imperfections, soit par radiographie numérique (CR), soit par radiographie avec des panneaux de détecteurs numériques (DDA). Il comprend un contrôle manuel et automatisé avec des DDA.
Les détecteurs numériques produisent une image numérique en valeurs de gris qui ne peut être visualisée et évaluée qu'à l'aide d'un ordinateur (Annexe E). Le présent document spécifie le mode opératoire recommandé pour le choix des détecteurs et la pratique radiographique. Le choix de l'ordinateur, du logiciel, de l'écran, de l'imprimante et des conditions d'observation est important, mais ne constitue pas le centre d'intérêt du présent document. Le mode opératoire spécifié dans le présent document fournit les exigences minimales pour la pratique radiographique permettant l'exposition et l'acquisition des radiogrammes numériques avec une sensibilité de détection des imperfections équivalente à celle de la radiographie à l'aide de film (spécifiée dans l'ISO 17636‑1).
Le présent document ne spécifie pas les niveaux d'acceptation des indications trouvées sur les radiogrammes numériques. L'ISO 10675 fournit des informations sur les niveaux d'acceptation pour le contrôle des soudures.
Si les parties contractantes appliquent des critères d'essai moins rigoureux, il se peut que la qualité obtenue soit nettement inférieure à celle atteinte par l'application stricte du présent document.
Neporušitveno preskušanje zvarnih spojev - Radiografsko preskušanje - 2. del: Tehnike z rentgenskimi in gama žarki z uporabo digitalnih detektorjev (ISO 17636-2:2022)
Ta dokument določa tehnike digitalne radiografije z namenom omogočanja zadovoljivih in ponovljivih rezultatov. Tehnike so osnovane na splošno priznani praksi in temeljnem poznavanju subjekta.
Ta dokument se uporablja za digitalno radiografsko preskušanje talilno zvarjenih spojev v kovinskih materialih. Uporablja se za spoje plošč in cevi. Poleg svojega klasičnega pomena izraz »cev«, kot je uporabljen v tem dokumentu, zajema tudi druga cilindrična telesa, kot so dovodni kanali, bobni kotlov in tlačne posode.
Ta dokument določa zahteve za zaznavanje nepravilnosti zvarjenih spojev pri kovinskih ploščah in ceveh z digitalnim radiografskim preskušanjem z rentgenskimi ali gama žarki z uporabo računalniške radiografije (CR) ali radiografije z digitalnimi detektorskimi nizi (DDA). Vključuje ročni in avtomatizirani pregled z digitalnimi detektorskimi nizi.
Digitalni detektorji zagotavljajo digitalno sivinsko sliko, ki jo je mogoče prikazati in oceniti prek računalnika (dodatek E). Ta dokument določa priporočen postopek za izbiro detektorja in radiografsko prakso. Izbira računalnika, programske opreme, monitorja, tiskalnika in pogojev prikaza je pomembna, vendar ni ključni del tega dokumenta. Postopek, določen v tem dokumentu, zagotavlja minimalne zahteve za radiografsko prakso, ki omogočajo izpostavljenost in pridobivanje digitalnih rentgenskih slik z občutljivostjo zaznavanja nepravilnosti, enako kot pri radiografskem filmu (iz standarda ISO 17636-1).
Ta dokument ne določa stopenj sprejemljivosti za indikacije na digitalnih rentgenskih slikah. Standard ISO 10675 podaja informacije o stopnjah sprejemljivosti za pregled zvarnih spojev.
Če pogodbene stranke uporabijo nizka preskusna merila, bo dosežena kakovost morda znatno nižja od kakovosti, dosežene s strogim upoštevanjem tega dokumenta.
General Information
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Standards Content (Sample)
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
01-marec-2023
Nadomešča:
SIST EN ISO 17636-2:2013
Neporušitveno preskušanje zvarnih spojev - Radiografsko preskušanje - 2. del:
Tehnike z rentgenskimi in gama žarki z uporabo digitalnih detektorjev (ISO 17636-
2:2022)
Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing - Part 2: X- and gamma-ray
techniques with digital detectors (ISO 17636-2:2022)
Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen - Durchstrahlungsprüfung - Teil 2:
Röntgen- und Gammastrahlungstechniken mit digitalen Detektoren (ISO 17636-2:2022)
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés - Contrôle par radiographie - Partie 2:
Techniques par rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs numériques (ISO 17636-
2:2022)
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN ISO 17636-2:2022
ICS:
25.160.40 Varjeni spoji in vari Welded joints and welds
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
EN ISO 17636-2
EUROPEAN STANDARD
NORME EUROPÉENNE
October 2022
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
ICS 25.160.40 Supersedes EN ISO 17636-2:2013
English Version
Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing -
Part 2: X- and gamma-ray techniques with digital detectors
(ISO 17636-2:2022)
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés - Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen -
Contrôle par radiographie - Partie 2: Techniques par Durchstrahlungsprüfung - Teil 2: Röntgen- und
rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs numériques Gammastrahlungstechniken mit digitalen Detektoren
(ISO 17636-2:2022) (ISO 17636-2:2022)
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 23 August 2022.
CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this
European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references
concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre or to any CEN
member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by
translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management
Centre has the same status as the official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and
United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2022 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN ISO 17636-2:2022 E
worldwide for CEN national Members.
Contents Page
European foreword . 3
European foreword
This document (EN ISO 17636-2:2022) has been prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 44 "Welding
and allied processes" in collaboration with Technical Committee CEN/TC 121 “Welding and allied
processes” the secretariat of which is held by DIN.
This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an
identical text or by endorsement, at the latest by April 2023, and conflicting national standards shall be
withdrawn at the latest by April 2023.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. CEN shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
This document supersedes EN ISO 17636-2:2013.
Any feedback and questions on this document should be directed to the users’ national standards
body/national committee. A complete listing of these bodies can be found on the CEN website.
According to the CEN-CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organizations of the
following countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of
North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and the
United Kingdom.
Endorsement notice
The text of ISO 17636-2:2022 has been approved by CEN as EN ISO 17636-2:2022 without any
modification.
INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 17636-2
Second edition
2022-09
Non-destructive testing of welds —
Radiographic testing —
Part 2:
X- and gamma-ray techniques with
digital detectors
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés — Contrôle par
radiographie —
Partie 2: Techniques par rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs
numériques
Reference number
ISO 17636-2:2022(E)
ISO 17636-2:2022(E)
© ISO 2022
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on
the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address below
or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
ISO copyright office
CP 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11
Email: copyright@iso.org
Website: www.iso.org
Published in Switzerland
ii
ISO 17636-2:2022(E)
Contents Page
Foreword .v
1 S c op e . 1
2 Nor m at i ve r ef er enc e s . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 2
4 S ymbols and abbreviated terms.6
5 Classification of radiographic techniques and compensation principles .8
5.1 C lassification . 8
5.2 C ompensation principles, CP I, CP II or CP III . 8
5.2.1 G eneral . 8
5.2.2 C ompensation principle I (CP I) . 8
5.2.3 C ompensation principle II (CP II) . 8
5.2.4 C ompensation principle III (CP III) . 8
5 . 2 . 5 T he or e t ic a l b ac k g r ou nd . 9
6 General preparations and requirements . 9
6.1 Protection against ionizing radiation . 9
6.2 S urface preparation and stage of manufacture . 9
6.3 L ocation of the weld in the radiograph . 9
6.4 I dentification of radiographs . 9
6 . 5 M a rk i n g . 9
6.6 O verlap of digital images . 10
6.7 T ypes and positions of image quality indicators (IQIs) . 10
6.7.1 General . 10
6.7.2 Duplex wire IQIs. 10
6.7.3 Single wire or step-hole IQIs . 10
6.8 E valuation of image quality . 11
6.9 M inimum image quality values.12
6.10 Personnel qualification . 12
7 R e c om mende d t e c h n ique s .13
7.1 Te s t a r r a n g ement s . 13
7.1.1 G eneral .13
7.1.2 S ingle-wall penetration of plane objects (see Figure 1) . 14
7.1.3 S ingle-wall penetration of curved objects with the source outside the
object (see Figures 2 to 4) . 14
7.1.4 S ingle-wall penetration of curved objects with the source inside the object
for panoramic exposure (see Figures 5 to 7) . 15
7.1.5 Single-wall penetration of curved objects with the source located off-
centre and inside the object (see Figures 8 to 10) . 16
7.1.6 Double-wall penetration and double-image evaluation (DWDI) of pipes
with the elliptic technique and the source and the detector outside the
object (see Figure 11) . 17
7.1.7 Double-wall penetration and double-image evaluation (DWDI) with the
perpendicular technique and source and detector outside the object (see
Figure 12) . 17
7.1.8 D ouble-wall penetration and single-image evaluation (DWSI) of curved
objects for evaluation of the wall next to the detector (see Figures 13 to 16). 18
7.1.9 P enetration of objects with different material thicknesses (see Figure 17
to 19) . 19
7.2 C hoice of tube voltage and radiation source . 20
7.2.1 X -ray devices up to 1 000 kV . 20
7.2.2 O ther radiation sources . 21
7.3 D etector systems and metal screens . 22
7.3.1
...
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
01-marec-2023
Nadomešča:
SIST EN ISO 17636-2:2013
Neporušitveno preskušanje zvarnih spojev - Radiografsko preiskušanje - 2. del:
Tehnike z rentgenskimi in gama žarki z uporabo digitalnih detektorjev (ISO 17636-
2:2022)
Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing - Part 2: X- and gamma-ray
techniques with digital detectors (ISO 17636-2:2022)
Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen - Durchstrahlungsprüfung - Teil 2:
Röntgen- und Gammastrahlungstechniken mit digitalen Detektoren (ISO 17636-2:2022)
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés - Contrôle par radiographie - Partie 2:
Techniques par rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs numériques (ISO 17636-
2:2022)
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN ISO 17636-2:2022
ICS:
25.160.40 Varjeni spoji in vari Welded joints and welds
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
EN ISO 17636-2
EUROPEAN STANDARD
NORME EUROPÉENNE
October 2022
EUROPÄISCHE NORM
ICS 25.160.40 Supersedes EN ISO 17636-2:2013
English Version
Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing -
Part 2: X- and gamma-ray techniques with digital detectors
(ISO 17636-2:2022)
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés - Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen -
Contrôle par radiographie - Partie 2: Techniques par Durchstrahlungsprüfung - Teil 2: Röntgen- und
rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs numériques Gammastrahlungstechniken mit digitalen Detektoren
(ISO 17636-2:2022) (ISO 17636-2:2022)
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 23 August 2022.
CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this
European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references
concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre or to any CEN
member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by
translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management
Centre has the same status as the official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and
United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2022 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN ISO 17636-2:2022 E
worldwide for CEN national Members.
Contents Page
European foreword . 3
European foreword
This document (EN ISO 17636-2:2022) has been prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 44 "Welding
and allied processes" in collaboration with Technical Committee CEN/TC 121 “Welding and allied
processes” the secretariat of which is held by DIN.
This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an
identical text or by endorsement, at the latest by April 2023, and conflicting national standards shall be
withdrawn at the latest by April 2023.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. CEN shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
This document supersedes EN ISO 17636-2:2013.
Any feedback and questions on this document should be directed to the users’ national standards
body/national committee. A complete listing of these bodies can be found on the CEN website.
According to the CEN-CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organizations of the
following countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of
North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and the
United Kingdom.
Endorsement notice
The text of ISO 17636-2:2022 has been approved by CEN as EN ISO 17636-2:2022 without any
modification.
INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 17636-2
Second edition
2022-09
Non-destructive testing of welds —
Radiographic testing —
Part 2:
X- and gamma-ray techniques with
digital detectors
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés — Contrôle par
radiographie —
Partie 2: Techniques par rayons X ou gamma à l'aide de détecteurs
numériques
Reference number
ISO 17636-2:2022(E)
ISO 17636-2:2022(E)
© ISO 2022
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on
the internet or an intranet, without prior written permission. Permission can be requested from either ISO at the address below
or ISO’s member body in the country of the requester.
ISO copyright office
CP 401 • Ch. de Blandonnet 8
CH-1214 Vernier, Geneva
Phone: +41 22 749 01 11
Email: copyright@iso.org
Website: www.iso.org
Published in Switzerland
ii
ISO 17636-2:2022(E)
Contents Page
Foreword .v
1 S c op e . 1
2 Nor m at i ve r ef er enc e s . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 2
4 S ymbols and abbreviated terms.6
5 Classification of radiographic techniques and compensation principles .8
5.1 C lassification . 8
5.2 C ompensation principles, CP I, CP II or CP III . 8
5.2.1 G eneral . 8
5.2.2 C ompensation principle I (CP I) . 8
5.2.3 C ompensation principle II (CP II) . 8
5.2.4 C ompensation principle III (CP III) . 8
5 . 2 . 5 T he or e t ic a l b ac k g r ou nd . 9
6 General preparations and requirements . 9
6.1 Protection against ionizing radiation . 9
6.2 S urface preparation and stage of manufacture . 9
6.3 L ocation of the weld in the radiograph . 9
6.4 I dentification of radiographs . 9
6 . 5 M a rk i n g . 9
6.6 O verlap of digital images . 10
6.7 T ypes and positions of image quality indicators (IQIs) . 10
6.7.1 General . 10
6.7.2 Duplex wire IQIs. 10
6.7.3 Single wire or step-hole IQIs . 10
6.8 E valuation of image quality . 11
6.9 M inimum image quality values.12
6.10 Personnel qualification . 12
7 R e c om mende d t e c h n ique s .13
7.1 Te s t a r r a n g ement s . 13
7.1.1 G eneral .13
7.1.2 S ingle-wall penetration of plane objects (see Figure 1) . 14
7.1.3 S ingle-wall penetration of curved objects with the source outside the
object (see Figures 2 to 4) . 14
7.1.4 S ingle-wall penetration of curved objects with the source inside the object
for panoramic exposure (see Figures 5 to 7) . 15
7.1.5 Single-wall penetration of curved objects with the source located off-
centre and inside the object (see Figures 8 to 10) . 16
7.1.6 Double-wall penetration and double-image evaluation (DWDI) of pipes
with the elliptic technique and the source and the detector outside the
object (see Figure 11) . 17
7.1.7 Double-wall penetration and double-image evaluation (DWDI) with the
perpendicular technique and source and detector outside the object (see
Figure 12) . 17
7.1.8 D ouble-wall penetration and single-image evaluation (DWSI) of curved
objects for evaluation of the wall next to the detector (see Figures 13 to 16). 18
7.1.9 P enetration of objects with different material thicknesses (see Figure 17
to 19) . 19
7.2 C hoice of tube voltage and radiation source . 20
7.2.1 X -ray devices up to 1 000 kV . 20
7.2.2 O ther radiation sources . 21
7.3 D etector systems and metal screens . 22
7.3.1
...
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