SIST-TP CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021

Space Engineering - Thermal design handbook - Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling

In this Part 14 cooling methods below 100 K are described. These low temperature levels are mainly required by space borne electronic systems operating under very low noise conditions. Details on the materials used and safety factors are given.
The Thermal design handbook is published in 16 Parts
TR 17603-31-01 Part 1    Thermal design handbook – Part 1: View factors
TR 17603-31-01 Part 2    Thermal design handbook – Part 2: Holes, Grooves and Cavities
TR 17603-31-01 Part 3    Thermal design handbook – Part 3: Spacecraft Surface Temperature
TR 17603-31-01 Part 4    Thermal design handbook – Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
TR 17603-31-01 Part 5    Thermal design handbook – Part 5: Structural Materials: Metallic and Composite
TR 17603-31-01 Part 6    Thermal design handbook – Part 6: Thermal Control Surfaces
TR 17603-31-01 Part 7    Thermal design handbook – Part 7: Insulations
TR 17603-31-01 Part 8    Thermal design handbook – Part 8: Heat Pipes
TR 17603-31-01 Part 9    Thermal design handbook – Part 9: Radiators
TR 17603-31-01 Part 10    Thermal design handbook – Part 10: Phase – Change Capacitors
TR 17603-31-01 Part 11    Thermal design handbook – Part 11: Electrical Heating
TR 17603-31-01 Part 12    Thermal design handbook – Part 12: Louvers
TR 17603-31-01 Part 13    Thermal design handbook – Part 13: Fluid Loops
TR 17603-31-01 Part 14    Thermal design handbook – Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
TR 17603-31-01 Part 15    Thermal design handbook – Part 15: Existing Satellites
TR 17603-31-01 Part 16    Thermal design handbook – Part 16: Thermal Protection System

Raumfahrttechnik - Handbuch für thermisches Design - Teil 14: Kryogene Kühlung

Ingénierie spatiale - Manuel de conception thermique - Partie 14: Refroidissement cryogénique

Vesoljska tehnika - Priročnik o toplotni zasnovi - 14. del: Kriogeno hlajenje

General Information

• Status: Published
• Public Enquiry End Date: 26-May-2021
• Publication Date: 23-Aug-2021
• ICS: 49.140 - Space systems and operations
• Technical Committee: I13 - Imaginarni 13
• Current Stage: 6060 - National Implementation/Publication (Adopted Project)
• Start Date: 19-Aug-2021
• Due Date: 24-Oct-2021
• Completion Date: 24-Aug-2021
• Mandate: M/496 - Mandate addressed to CEN, CENELEC and ETSI to develop standardisation regarding space industry (Phase 3 of the process)
• Ref Project: CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021 - Space Engineering - Thermal design handbook - Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling

Standards Content (Sample)

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST-TP CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021
01-oktober-2021
Vesoljska tehnika - Priročnik o toplotni zasnovi - 14. del: Kriogeno hlajenje
Space Engineering - Thermal design handbook - Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
Raumfahrttechnik - Handbuch für thermisches Design - Teil 14: Kryogene Kühlung
Ingénierie spatiale - Manuel de conception thermique - Partie 14: Refroidissement
cryogénique
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021
ICS:
49.140 Vesoljski sistemi in operacije Space systems and
operations
SIST-TP CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021 en,fr,de
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

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SIST-TP CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021

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SIST-TP CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021


TECHNICAL REPORT
CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-
14
RAPPORT TECHNIQUE

TECHNISCHER BERICHT

August 2021
ICS 49.140

English version

Space Engineering - Thermal design handbook - Part 14:
Cryogenic Cooling
Ingénierie spatiale - Manuel de conception thermique - Raumfahrttechnik - Handbuch für thermisches Design -
Partie 14 : Refroidissement cryogénique Teil 14: Kryogene


This Technical Report was approved by CEN on 28 June 2021. It has been drawn up by the Technical Committee CEN/CLC/JTC 5.

CEN and CENELEC members are the national standards bodies and national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom.
























CEN-CENELEC Management Centre:
Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2021 CEN/CENELEC All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means Ref. No. CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021 E
reserved worldwide for CEN national Members and for
CENELEC Members.

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CEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021 (E)
Table of contents
European Foreword . 25
1 Scope . 26
2 References . 27
3 Terms, definitions and symbols . 28
3.1 Terms and definitions . 28
3.2 Abbreviated terms. 28
3.3 Symbols . 30
4 General introduction . 42
4.1 Radiant coolers . 43
4.2 Stored solid-cryogen coolers . 44
4.3 Stored liquid Helium (He4) coolers . 44
4.4 Trends toward lower temperatures . 45
4.5 Mechanical refrigerators . 46
4.6 Low temperature requirements to IR sensors . 47
4.6.2 Radiation from the optical system . 48
4.6.3 Noise from the detector . 49
5 Refrigerating systems . 51
5.1 General . 51
5.2 Closed cycle . 51
5.2.1 Reverse-Brayton cycle . 52
5.2.2 Reverse-Brayton and Claude cycle refrigerators . 54
5.2.3 Gifford-McMahon/Solvay cycle refrigerators . 55
5.2.4 Joule-Thomson Closed Cycle Refrigerator . 57
5.2.5 Stirling cycle refrigerators . 58
5.2.6 Vuilleumier cycle refrigerator . 66
5.2.7 Existing systems . 69
5.3 Open cycle . 105
5.3.1 Joule-Thomson open cycle refrigerators . 105
5.3.2 Existing systems . 108
2

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5.3.3 Stored liquid or solid cryogen open refrigerators . 114
6 VCS Dewars . 115
6.1 General . 115
6.2 Theoretical analysis . 117
6.2.1 Introduction . 117
6.2.2 The idealized model . 118
6.2.3 Evaluation of the restrictions involved in the idealized model . 123
6.3 Supports . 162
6.3.1 Introduction . 162
6.3.2 Support materials . 163
6.3.3 Low thermal conductance tubing . 165
6.3.4 Tensile and flexural supports . 170
6.3.5 Compressive supports . 175
6.4 Phase separators . 176
6.4.1 Introduction . 176
6.4.2 Thermodynamic vent system . 182
6.4.3 Capillary barriers . 183
6.4.4 Porous media . 190
6.4.5 Baffled tanks . 193
6.4.6 Empirical data for design . 205
6.4.7 Testing . 216
6.5 Existing systems . 218
6.5.1 Introduction . 218
6.5.2 Data on existing systems . 220
7 Superfluid Helium . 234
7.1 Dynamics of superfluids . 234
7.1.1 Relevant equations of superfluid dynamics . 235
7.1.2 Frictional effects . 240
7.1.3 Counterflow heat transfer . 246
7.1.4 Heat transfer at arbitrary combinations of vn and vs . 257
7.1.5 Vapor formation . 258
7.1.6 Superfluid Helium film . 259
7.2 Kapitza conductance . 267
7.2.1 Measuring methods . 269
7.2.2 Experimental data . 272
7.3 Thermo-acoustic oscillations . 303
7.4 The superfluid plug . 305
3

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7.4.1 Phase separation in superfluid helium . 305
7.4.2 Simplified theory of the superfluid plug . 306
7.4.3 Characteristics of porous media . 330
7.5 Filling a superfluid helium container . 338
7.5.1 Liquid loss because of pump down . 338
7.5.2 Pumping down requirements . 340
7.5.3 A typical filling sequence . 340
8 Materials at cryogenic temperatures . 343
8.1 Normal cryogens . 343
8.1.1 General properties . 343
8.1.2 Entropy diagrams . 391
8.2 Superfluid Helium-4 . 443
8.3 Normal Helium-3 . 449
8.4 Metallic materials . 452
8.5 Composite materials . 466
8.5.1 Structural tubes . 493
8.6 Miscellaneous materials. 495
9 Safety with cryogenic systems . 496
9.1 General . 496
9.1.1 Physiological hazards . 496
9.1.2 Fire and explosion hazards . 496
9.1.3 Pressure hazards . 497
9.1.4 Materials hazards . 497
9.1.5 Safety provisions . 498
9.2 Hazards related to properties of cryogens . 499
9.2.1 Combustion in an oxygen environment . 501
9.2.2 Combustible cryogens . 502
9.2.3 Fluorine . 510
9.2.4 O deficiency . 511
2
9.3 Change of properties of structural materials. 511
9.3.1 Temperature embrittlement . 511
9.3.2 Hydrogen embrittlement . 521
9.3.3 Design codes and acceptance tests . 528
Bibliography . 529

Figures
4

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3
Figure 4-1: He cooler being developed by NASA. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 46
Figure 4-2: Procedure to reduce the background flux from the optics. From Caren &
Sklensky (1970) [37]. 48
Figure 4-3: Detectivity, D*, of a photon noise-limited detector as a function of cutoff
wavelength,  , for several values of the optics temperature, T. From Caren
c
& Sklensky (1970) [37]. . 49
Figure 4-4: Typical detector operating temperature, T, vs. detectivity, D*. The detector
is germanium doped either with mercury, with cadmium or with copper.
From Caren & Sklensky (1970) [37]. . 50
Figure 5-1: Reverse-Brayton Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 52
Figure 5-2: Compressor cross section of ADL rotary-reciprocating refrigerator. From
Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 53
Figure 5-3: Claude Cycle Refrigerator. From Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 54
Figure 5-4: Solvay Cycle Refrigerator. From Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 56
Figure 5-5: Joule-Thomson Closed Cycle Refrigerator. From Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 57
Figure 5-6: Stirling Cycle Refrigerator Operation. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 58
Figure 5-7: Stirling Cycle Refrigerator Ideal Pressure-Volume and Temperature-
Entropy Diagrams. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 59
Figure 5-8: Schematic representation of North American Philips refrigerator, showing
rhombic drive mechanism. The drive has two counter-rotating crankshafts,
each powered by a drive motor. By adjusting the mass of the reciprocating
members of the drive and by adding appropriate counterweights to the
crankshafts, the center of the gravity of all the moving parts can be kept
stationary. From Balas, Leffel & Wingate (1978) [16]. 60
Figure 5-9: Schematic representation of North American Philips Magnetic Bearing
refrigerator, showing the linear motors for piston and displacer and the
magnetic bearing. The displacer rod passes through the piston. From
Sherman, Gasser, Benson & McCormick (1980) [221]. . 61
Figure 5-10: Coupling of two refrigerator units to provide cooling of a single detector.
The complete refrigerator can be seen in Figure 5-8. Here, on the contrary,
only the first and second stages of both refrigerators are shown. From Naes
& Nast (1980) [160]. . 62
Figure 5-11: Ground Test temperatures, of the first and second stage vs. Second stage
heat transfer rate, Q , for different values of the first stage heat transfer
2
rate, Q , and motor rpm. The data correspond to refrigerator 2 but are
1
typical of the four units. From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. first stage, Q =
1
1,5 W, 1000 rpm; first stage, Q = 1,5 W, 1150 rpm; second stage Q
1 1
= 1,5 W, 1000 rpm; second stage Q = 1,5 W, 1150 rpm; first stage, Q
1
= 2 W, 1000 rpm; Q = 2 W, 1000 rpm. . 63
1 1
Figure 5-12: In orbit temperature, T, of several components of Gamma 004 systems vs.
Orbital time, t . From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. cold tip of refrigerator 3;
cold tip of refrigerator 4; shroud; ground test value of cold tip of
refrigerator 3; ground test value of shroud. . 63
Figure 5-13: In orbit temperature, T, of several components of Gamma 003 systems vs.
Orbital time, t . From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. cold tip of refrigerator 2;
cold tip of refrigerator 1; shroud; ground test value of cold tip of
refrigerator 2; ground test value of shroud. . 64
5

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Figure 5-14: In orbit heat transfer rates, Q, from Gamma 003 detector to refrigerators 1
and 2, vs. orbital time, t. From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. detector heat
load. Refrigerator 2 on; heat load through meter 1, Q . Refrigerator 1
1
off; heat load through meter 2, Q . Refrigerator 2 on; refrigerators 1
2
and 2 on; refrigerators 1 and 2 on; refrigerators 1 and 2 on. . 64
Figure 5-15: Schematic of the Vuilleumier-Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1978)
[216]. . 67
Figure 5-16: Vuilleumier-Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1971) [218]. . 67
Figure 5-17: Pressure-Volume Diagrams, for the Cold Cylinder, Hot Cylinder and Total
Gas, of the Vuilleumier-Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1971) [218]. . 67
-
Figure 5-18: Inverse efficiency (required power per unit of refrigeration power)  1, vs.
operating temperature, T, for several closed cycle refrigerators. a - Brayton
refrigerators (Turbo machinery Systems). b - Stirling refrigerators. c -
Vuilleumier refrigerators. d - Gifford-McMahon/Solvay refrigerators. From
Donabedian (1972) [59]. Also shown are curves for closed cycle
refrigerators operating with the quoted efficiencies (in percentages of
Carnot) through the whole temperature range. From Haskin & Dexter
(1979) [83]. The Carnot efficiency for a machine working between T and
C
T temperatures is given by  = 1  T /T . Very low operating
H c C H
temperatures result in a reduced efficiency for a given cooling load and a
given cycle. . 70
Figure 5-19: System mass per unit of refrigeration power, M , vs. operating
p
temperature, T for several closed cycle refrigerators. a - Gifford-
McMahon/Solvay refrigerators. b - Stirling refrigerators. From Donabedian
(1972) [59]. . 71
Figure 5-20: System mass per unit of refrigeration power (or cooling load), M , for
p
representative closed cycle refrigerating systems and for passive radiant
coolers. Closed cycle refrigerators, Q = 0,1 W. Closed cycle
refrigerators, Q = 1 W. Closed cycle refrigerators, Q = 10 W. Passive
radiant coolers; Q = 0,1 W. Passive radiant coolers; Q = 1 W. Passive
radiant coolers; Q = 10 W. From Haskin & Dexter (1979) [83]. Smallest
temperature attained by closed cycle refrigerators in orbit. Smallest
temperature attained by passive radiant coolers in orbit. From Sherman
(1982) [217]. . 72
Figure 5-21: System area per unit of refrigeration power (or cooling load), A /M , for
p p
closed cycle refrigerating systems and for passive radiant coolers.
Closed cycle refrigerators, Q = 1 W. Passive radiant coolers; Q = 1 W.
From Haskin & Dexter (1979) [83]. Although the areas, A , have been
p
calculated for 1 W cooling, they could be scaled in approximately direct
7 4
proportion to the cooling load. A /Q = 7,13x10 T is the best fitting, by the
p
least squares method, to the data for passive radiant coolers. Smallest
temperature attained by closed cycle refrigerators in orbit. Smallest
temperature attained by passive radiant coolers in orbit. From Sherman
(1982) [217]. . 75
Figure 5-22: 80 K cooler schematic. From Jewell (1991) [103]. . 101
Figure 5-23: Cooler heat lift performance vs. gross compressor input power. From Scull
& Jewell (1991) [211]. 102
Figure 5-24: 20 K cooler schematic. From Jones et al. (1991) [110]. . 103
6

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Figure 5-25: Heat lift performance of: a) development model; b) engineering model.
From Jones et al. (1991) [110]. . 104
Figure 5-26: 4 K cooler layout. From Bradshaw & Orlowska (1988) [27]. . 104
Figure 5-27: Cooling power/mass flow vs. precooler temperature. From Bradshaw &
Orlowska (1991) [28]. . 105
Figure 5-28: Isenthalps and inversion curve for different gasses. a Hydrogen. b Helium.
c Nitrogen. From Zemansky (1968) [272]. Data in b, after Hill &
Loumasmaa (1960) [89], are no longer valid for above 20 K. Upper
isenthalps are instead from Angus & de Reuck (1977) [6], pp. 64-127 . The
locus of the maxima has been drawn by the compiler as a dotted line. . 106
Figure 5-29: Schematic of a typical JT cryostat-dewar system. From Hellwig (1980)
[86]. . 107
Figure 5-30: Schematic of a self-demand flow JT cryostat-dewar system. From Oren &
Gutfinger (1979) [175]. The sketch of the variable-orifice controlling device
is from Buller (1970) [35]. . 108
Figure 6-1: Schematic representation of a solid gryogen cooler. From Breckenridge
(1972) [29]. . 116
Figure 6-2: Sketch of a typical VCS Dewar. From Niendorf & Choksi (1967) [169]. . 117
Figure 6-3: Heat transfer mechanism through a normal attachment VCS Dewar. From
Niendorf & Choksi (1967) [169]. . 117
Figure 6-4: Insulation model geometry. . 119
Figure 6-5: Ratio m/m against the cryogen sensibility, S, for different values of the
0
heat additions to the cryogen other than those across the insulation. No
cooled supports (m = 0). Calculated by the compiler. . 121
sj
Figure 6-6: Corrective factor,  , for the dependence of insulation thermal conductivity,
k
k, on temperature, T, against the sensibility, S, of the cryogen, for several
values of the temperature ratio, T /T . A linear thermal conductivity vs.
C H
temperature dependence has been assumed. Calculated by the compiler. . 128
Figure 6-7: Insulation model with finite number of shields. . 129
Figure 6-8: Corrective factor,  , accounting for the influence of the finite number, n, of
n
shields, vs. the sensibility S of the cryogen, for several values of n.
Calculated by the compiler. . 134
Figure 6-9: Contours of constant values of the ratio of the heat flux through the VCS
system to the uncooled shield heat flux, mapped as functions of the
dimensionless distances,  and  , of the two vapor cooled shields to the
1 2
cold face of the insulation, for several values of the sensibility, S, of the
cryogen. Uniform insulation thermal conductivity. The numerical values
labelling the contours corresponds to  /  1. Calculated by the
n nopt
compiler. . 140
Figure 6-10: Contours of dimensionless displacements of a single shield from its
optimum position ( = 0,25) which produce a 10% increase in the heat flux
1
through a three shield system. The contours are mapped as functions of
the remaining two shields dimensionless positions. Numerical values are
for helium between 4 K and 300 K. From Atherton & Prentiss (1973) [12]. . 141
Figure 6-11: Contours of constant values of the ratio of the heat flux through the VCS
system to the uncooled shield heat flux, mapped as functions of the
dimensionless distances,  and  , of the two vapor cooled shields to the
1 2
7

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cold face of the insulation, for several cryogens in typical cases.
Temperature dependent insulation thermal conductivity (k = k T). The
1
numerical values labelling the contours corresponds to  /  1.
n nopt
Calculated by the compiler. . 142
Figure 6-12: Factor  , accounting for finite convective heat transfer in the venting
Nu
duct, vs. coefficient r, for several cryogens. T = 300 K. Calculated by the
H
compiler. . 145
Figure 6-13: Factor  , accounting for finite convective heat transfer in the venting
Nu
duct, vs. coefficient r, for several cryogens. T = 200 K. Calculated by the
H
compiler. . 146
Figure 6-14: Factor  , accounting for finite convective heat transfer in the venting
Nu
duct, vs. coefficient r, for several cryogens. T = 150 K. Calculated by the
H
compiler. . 147
Figure 6-15: Helium vapor bulk temperature, Tb, vs. insulation temperature, T, for
different values of the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient, r. T = 300 K.
H
Calculated by the compiler. . 148
Figure 6-16: Temperature, T, across the insulation for different values of the
dimensionless heat transfer coefficient r. Helium vapor cooling. T = 300 K.
H
Calculated by the compiler. . 149
Figure 6-17: Sketch of a VCS insulation in the nearness of the venting duct. Normal
attachment. After Paivanas et al. (1965) [177]. . 149
Figure 6-18: Sketch of the insulation and of the simplified configurations used to
analyze the influence of the finite thermal conductivity of the shields. (a)
Insulation. (b) Simplified configuration in the physical coordinates x, y. (c)
Simplified configuration in the stretched coordinates, , . . 151
Figure 6-19: Sketch of a typical spaceborne Dewar. All the dimensions are in mm. . 152
Figure 6-20: Coefficient, (  1)/, of the first order correction accounting for the
y
influence of the finite thermal conductivity of the VCSs on the cryogen boil-
off rate, as a function of the cryogen sensibility, S, for two values of the
dimensionless outer radius of the venting duct, . The results have been
obtained by means of a perturbation scheme in the small parameter, ,
which measured the ratio of normal to lateral heat flux, and are valid
3/2
provided that terms of order  can be neglected. Calculated by the
compiler. . 160
Figure 6-21: Cryogenic supp
...

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
kSIST-TP FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021
01-maj-2021
Vesoljska tehnika - Priročnik za toplotno zasnovo - 14. del: Kriogeno hlajenje
Space Engineering - Thermal design handbook - Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
Raumfahrttechnik - Handbuch für thermisches Design - Teil 14: Kryogene Kühlung
Ingénierie spatiale - Manuel de conception thermique - Partie 14: Refroidissement
cryogénique
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14
ICS:
49.140 Vesoljski sistemi in operacije Space systems and
operations
kSIST-TP FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31- en,fr,de
14:2021
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

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kSIST-TP FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021

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kSIST-TP FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021


TECHNICAL REPORT
FINAL DRAFT
FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-
RAPPORT TECHNIQUE
31-14
TECHNISCHER BERICHT


March 2021
ICS 49.140

English version

Space Engineering - Thermal design handbook - Part 14:
Cryogenic Cooling
Ingénierie spatiale - Manuel de conception thermique - Raumfahrttechnik - Handbuch für thermisches Design -
Partie 14: Refroidissement cryogénique Teil 14: Kryogene Kühlung


This draft Technical Report is submitted to CEN members for Vote. It has been drawn up by the Technical Committee
CEN/CLC/JTC 5.

CEN and CENELEC members are the national standards bodies and national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom.

Recipients of this draft are invited to submit, with their comments, notification of any relevant patent rights of which they are
aware and to provide supporting documentation.

Warning : This document is not a Technical Report. It is distributed for review and comments. It is subject to change without
notice and shall not be referred to as a Technical Report.




















CEN-CENELEC Management Centre:
Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2021 CEN/CENELEC All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means Ref. No. FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021 E
reserved worldwide for CEN national Members and for
CENELEC Members.

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kSIST-TP FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021
FprCEN/CLC/TR 17603-31-14:2021 (E)
Table of contents
European Foreword . 25
1 Scope . 26
2 References . 27
3 Terms, definitions and symbols . 28
3.1 Terms and definitions . 28
3.2 Abbreviated terms. 28
3.3 Symbols . 30
4 General introduction . 42
4.1 Radiant coolers . 43
4.2 Stored solid-cryogen coolers . 44
4.3 Stored liquid Helium (He4) coolers . 44
4.4 Trends toward lower temperatures . 45
4.5 Mechanical refrigerators . 46
4.6 Low temperature requirements to IR sensors . 47
4.6.2 Radiation from the optical system . 48
4.6.3 Noise from the detector . 49
5 Refrigerating systems . 51
5.1 General . 51
5.2 Closed cycle . 51
5.2.1 Reverse-Brayton cycle . 52
5.2.2 Reverse-Brayton and Claude cycle refrigerators . 54
5.2.3 Gifford-McMahon/Solvay cycle refrigerators . 55
5.2.4 Joule-Thomson Closed Cycle Refrigerator . 57
5.2.5 Stirling cycle refrigerators . 58
5.2.6 Vuilleumier cycle refrigerator . 66
5.2.7 Existing systems . 69
5.3 Open cycle . 105
5.3.1 Joule-Thomson open cycle refrigerators . 105
5.3.2 Existing systems . 108
2

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5.3.3 Stored liquid or solid cryogen open refrigerators . 114
6 VCS Dewars . 115
6.1 General . 115
6.2 Theoretical analysis . 117
6.2.1 Introduction . 117
6.2.2 The idealized model . 118
6.2.3 Evaluation of the restrictions involved in the idealized model . 123
6.3 Supports . 161
6.3.1 Introduction . 161
6.3.2 Support materials . 162
6.3.3 Low thermal conductance tubing . 164
6.3.4 Tensile and flexural supports . 169
6.3.5 Compressive supports . 174
6.4 Phase separators . 175
6.4.1 Introduction . 175
6.4.2 Thermodynamic vent system . 181
6.4.3 Capillary barriers . 182
6.4.4 Porous media . 189
6.4.5 Baffled tanks . 192
6.4.6 Empirical data for design . 204
6.4.7 Testing . 215
6.5 Existing systems . 217
6.5.1 Introduction . 217
6.5.2 Data on existing systems . 219
7 Superfluid Helium . 233
7.1 Dynamics of superfluids . 233
7.1.1 Relevant equations of superfluid dynamics . 234
7.1.2 Frictional effects . 239
7.1.3 Counterflow heat transfer . 245
7.1.4 Heat transfer at arbitrary combinations of vn and vs . 256
7.1.5 Vapor formation . 257
7.1.6 Superfluid Helium film . 258
7.2 Kapitza conductance . 266
7.2.1 Measuring methods . 268
7.2.2 Experimental data . 271
7.3 Thermo-acoustic oscillations . 302
7.4 The superfluid plug . 304
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7.4.1 Phase separation in superfluid helium . 304
7.4.2 Simplified theory of the superfluid plug . 305
7.4.3 Characteristics of porous media . 329
7.5 Filling a superfluid helium container . 337
7.5.1 Liquid loss because of pump down . 337
7.5.2 Pumping down requirements . 339
7.5.3 A typical filling sequence . 339
8 Materials at cryogenic temperatures . 342
8.1 Normal cryogens . 342
8.1.1 General properties . 342
8.1.2 Entropy diagrams . 390
8.2 Superfluid Helium-4 . 442
8.3 Normal Helium-3 . 448
8.4 Metallic materials . 451
8.5 Composite materials . 464
8.5.1 Structural tubes . 491
8.6 Miscellaneous materials. 493
9 Safety with cryogenic systems . 494
9.1 General . 494
9.1.1 Physiological hazards . 494
9.1.2 Fire and explosion hazards . 494
9.1.3 Pressure hazards . 495
9.1.4 Materials hazards . 495
9.1.5 Safety provisions . 496
9.2 Hazards related to properties of cryogens . 497
9.2.1 Combustion in an oxygen environment . 499
9.2.2 Combustible cryogens . 500
9.2.3 Fluorine . 508
9.2.4 O deficiency . 509
2
9.3 Change of properties of structural materials. 509
9.3.1 Temperature embrittlement . 509
9.3.2 Hydrogen embrittlement . 519
9.3.3 Design codes and acceptance tests . 526
Bibliography . 527

Figures
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3
Figure 4-1: He cooler being developed by NASA. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 46
Figure 4-2: Procedure to reduce the background flux from the optics. From Caren &
Sklensky (1970) [37]. 48
Figure 4-3: Detectivity, D*, of a photon noise-limited detector as a function of cutoff
wavelength,  , for several values of the optics temperature, T. From Caren
c
& Sklensky (1970) [37]. . 49
Figure 4-4: Typical detector operating temperature, T, vs. detectivity, D*. The detector
is germanium doped either with mercury, with cadmium or with copper.
From Caren & Sklensky (1970) [37]. . 50
Figure 5-1: Reverse-Brayton Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 52
Figure 5-2: Compressor cross section of ADL rotary-reciprocating refrigerator. From
Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 53
Figure 5-3: Claude Cycle Refrigerator. From Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 54
Figure 5-4: Solvay Cycle Refrigerator. From Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 56
Figure 5-5: Joule-Thomson Closed Cycle Refrigerator. From Donabedian (1972) [59]. . 57
Figure 5-6: Stirling Cycle Refrigerator Operation. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 58
Figure 5-7: Stirling Cycle Refrigerator Ideal Pressure-Volume and Temperature-
Entropy Diagrams. From Sherman (1978) [216]. . 59
Figure 5-8: Schematic representation of North American Philips refrigerator, showing
rhombic drive mechanism. The drive has two counter-rotating crankshafts,
each powered by a drive motor. By adjusting the mass of the reciprocating
members of the drive and by adding appropriate counterweights to the
crankshafts, the center of the gravity of all the moving parts can be kept
stationary. From Balas, Leffel & Wingate (1978) [16]. 60
Figure 5-9: Schematic representation of North American Philips Magnetic Bearing
refrigerator, showing the linear motors for piston and displacer and the
magnetic bearing. The displacer rod passes through the piston. From
Sherman, Gasser, Benson & McCormick (1980) [221]. . 61
Figure 5-10: Coupling of two refrigerator units to provide cooling of a single detector.
The complete refrigerator can be seen in Figure 5-8. Here, on the contrary,
only the first and second stages of both refrigerators are shown. From Naes
& Nast (1980) [160]. . 62
Figure 5-11: Ground Test temperatures, of the first and second stage vs. Second stage
heat transfer rate, Q , for different values of the first stage heat transfer
2
rate, Q , and motor rpm. The data correspond to refrigerator 2 but are
1
typical of the four units. From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. first stage, Q =
1
1,5 W, 1000 rpm; first stage, Q = 1,5 W, 1150 rpm; second stage Q
1 1
= 1,5 W, 1000 rpm; second stage Q = 1,5 W, 1150 rpm; first stage, Q
1
= 2 W, 1000 rpm; Q = 2 W, 1000 rpm. . 63
1 1
Figure 5-12: In orbit temperature, T, of several components of Gamma 004 systems vs.
Orbital time, t . From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. cold tip of refrigerator 3;
cold tip of refrigerator 4; shroud; ground test value of cold tip of
refrigerator 3; ground test value of shroud. . 63
Figure 5-13: In orbit temperature, T, of several components of Gamma 003 systems vs.
Orbital time, t . From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. cold tip of refrigerator 2;
cold tip of refrigerator 1; shroud; ground test value of cold tip of
refrigerator 2; ground test value of shroud. . 64
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Figure 5-14: In orbit heat transfer rates, Q, from Gamma 003 detector to refrigerators 1
and 2, vs. orbital time, t. From Naes & Nast (1980) [160]. detector heat
load. Refrigerator 2 on; heat load through meter 1, Q . Refrigerator 1
1
off; heat load through meter 2, Q . Refrigerator 2 on; refrigerators 1
2
and 2 on; refrigerators 1 and 2 on; refrigerators 1 and 2 on. . 64
Figure 5-15: Schematic of the Vuilleumier-Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1978)
[216]. . 67
Figure 5-16: Vuilleumier-Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1971) [218]. . 67
Figure 5-17: Pressure-Volume Diagrams, for the Cold Cylinder, Hot Cylinder and Total
Gas, of the Vuilleumier-Cycle Refrigerator. From Sherman (1971) [218]. . 67
-
Figure 5-18: Inverse efficiency (required power per unit of refrigeration power)  1, vs.
operating temperature, T, for several closed cycle refrigerators. a - Brayton
refrigerators (Turbo machinery Systems). b - Stirling refrigerators. c -
Vuilleumier refrigerators. d - Gifford-McMahon/Solvay refrigerators. From
Donabedian (1972) [59]. Also shown are curves for closed cycle
refrigerators operating with the quoted efficiencies (in percentages of
Carnot) through the whole temperature range. From Haskin & Dexter
(1979) [83]. The Carnot efficiency for a machine working between T and
C
T temperatures is given by  = 1  T /T . Very low operating
H c C H
temperatures result in a reduced efficiency for a given cooling load and a
given cycle. . 70
Figure 5-19: System mass per unit of refrigeration power, M , vs. operating
p
temperature, T for several closed cycle refrigerators. a - Gifford-
McMahon/Solvay refrigerators. b - Stirling refrigerators. From Donabedian
(1972) [59]. . 71
Figure 5-20: System mass per unit of refrigeration power (or cooling load), M , for
p
representative closed cycle refrigerating systems and for passive radiant
coolers. Closed cycle refrigerators, Q = 0,1 W. Closed cycle
refrigerators, Q = 1 W. Closed cycle refrigerators, Q = 10 W. Passive
radiant coolers; Q = 0,1 W. Passive radiant coolers; Q = 1 W. Passive
radiant coolers; Q = 10 W. From Haskin & Dexter (1979) [83]. Smallest
temperature attained by closed cycle refrigerators in orbit. Smallest
temperature attained by passive radiant coolers in orbit. From Sherman
(1982) [217]. . 72
Figure 5-21: System area per unit of refrigeration power (or cooling load), A /M , for
p p
closed cycle refrigerating systems and for passive radiant coolers.
Closed cycle refrigerators, Q = 1 W. Passive radiant coolers; Q = 1 W.
From Haskin & Dexter (1979) [83]. Although the areas, A , have been
p
calculated for 1 W cooling, they could be scaled in approximately direct
7 4
proportion to the cooling load. A /Q = 7,13x10 T is the best fitting, by the
p
least squares method, to the data for passive radiant coolers. Smallest
temperature attained by closed cycle refrigerators in orbit. Smallest
temperature attained by passive radiant coolers in orbit. From Sherman
(1982) [217]. . 75
Figure 5-22: 80 K cooler schematic. From Jewell (1991) [103]. . 101
Figure 5-23: Cooler heat lift performance vs. gross compressor input power. From Scull
& Jewell (1991) [211]. 102
Figure 5-24: 20 K cooler schematic. From Jones et al. (1991) [110]. . 103
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Figure 5-25: Heat lift performance of: a) development model; b) engineering model.
From Jones et al. (1991) [110]. . 104
Figure 5-26: 4 K cooler layout. From Bradshaw & Orlowska (1988) [27]. . 104
Figure 5-27: Cooling power/mass flow vs. precooler temperature. From Bradshaw &
Orlowska (1991) [28]. . 105
Figure 5-28: Isenthalps and inversion curve for different gasses. a Hydrogen. b Helium.
c Nitrogen. From Zemansky (1968) [272]. Data in b, after Hill &
Loumasmaa (1960) [89], are no longer valid for above 20 K. Upper
isenthalps are instead from Angus & de Reuck (1977) [6], pp. 64-127 . The
locus of the maxima has been drawn by the compiler as a dotted line. . 106
Figure 5-29: Schematic of a typical JT cryostat-dewar system. From Hellwig (1980)
[86]. . 107
Figure 5-30: Schematic of a self-demand flow JT cryostat-dewar system. From Oren &
Gutfinger (1979) [175]. The sketch of the variable-orifice controlling device
is from Buller (1970) [35]. . 108
Figure 6-1: Schematic representation of a solid gryogen cooler. From Breckenridge
(1972) [29]. . 116
Figure 6-2: Sketch of a typical VCS Dewar. From Niendorf & Choksi (1967) [169]. . 117
Figure 6-3: Heat transfer mechanism through a normal attachment VCS Dewar. From
Niendorf & Choksi (1967) [169]. . 117
Figure 6-4: Insulation model geometry. . 119
Figure 6-5: Ratio m/m against the cryogen sensibility, S, for different values of the
0
heat additions to the cryogen other than those across the insulation. No
cooled supports (m = 0). Calculated by the compiler. . 121
sj
Figure 6-6: Corrective factor,  , for the dependence of insulation thermal conductivity,
k
k, on temperature, T, against the sensibility, S, of the cryogen, for several
values of the temperature ratio, T /T . A linear thermal conductivity vs.
C H
temperature dependence has been assumed. Calculated by the compiler. . 128
Figure 6-7: Insulation model with finite number of shields. . 129
Figure 6-8: Corrective factor,  , accounting for the influence of the finite number, n, of
n
shields, vs. the sensibility S of the cryogen, for several values of n.
Calculated by the compiler. . 133
Figure 6-9: Contours of constant values of the ratio of the heat flux through the VCS
system to the uncooled shield heat flux, mapped as functions of the
dimensionless distances,  and  , of the two vapor cooled shields to the
1 2
cold face of the insulation, for several values of the sensibility, S, of the
cryogen. Uniform insulation thermal conductivity. The numerical values
labelling the contours corresponds to  /  1. Calculated by the
n nopt
compiler. . 139
Figure 6-10: Contours of dimensionless displacements of a single shield from its
optimum position ( = 0,25) which produce a 10% increase in the heat flux
1
through a three shield system. The contours are mapped as functions of
the remaining two shields dimensionless positions. Numerical values are
for helium between 4 K and 300 K. From Atherton & Prentiss (1973) [12]. . 140
Figure 6-11: Contours of constant values of the ratio of the heat flux through the VCS
system to the uncooled shield heat flux, mapped as functions of the
dimensionless distances,  and  , of the two vapor cooled shields to the
1 2
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cold face of the insulation, for several cryogens in typical cases.
Temperature dependent insulation thermal conductivity (k = k T). The
1
numerical values labelling the contours corresponds to  /  1.
n nopt
Calculated by the compiler. . 141
Figure 6-12: Factor  , accounting for finite convective heat transfer in the venting
Nu
duct, vs. coefficient r, for several cryogens. T = 300 K. Calculated by the
H
compiler. . 144
Figure 6-13: Factor  , accounting for finite convective heat transfer in the venting
Nu
duct, vs. coefficient r, for several cryogens. T = 200 K. Calculated by the
H
compiler. . 145
Figure 6-14: Factor  , accounting for finite convective heat transfer in the venting
Nu
duct, vs. coefficient r, for several cryogens. T = 150 K. Calculated by the
H
compiler. . 146
Figure 6-15: Helium vapor bulk temperature, Tb, vs. insulation temperature, T, for
different values of the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient, r. T = 300 K.
H
Calculated by the compiler. . 147
Figure 6-16: Temperature, T, across the insulation for different values of the
dimensionless heat transfer coefficient r. Helium vapor cooling. T = 300 K.
H
Calculated by the compiler. . 148
Figure 6-17: Sketch of a VCS insulation in the nearness of the venting duct. Normal
attachment. After Paivanas et al. (1965) [177]. . 148
Figure 6-18: Sketch of the insulation and of the simplified configurations used to
analyze the influence of the finite thermal conductivity of the shields. (a)
Insulation. (b) Simplified configuration in the physical coordinates x, y. (c)
Simplified configuration in the stretched coordinates, , . . 150
Figure 6-19: Sketch of a typical spaceborne Dewar. All the dimensions are in mm. . 151
Figure 6-20: Coefficient, (  1)/, of the first order correction accounting for the
y
influence of the finite thermal conductivity of the VCSs on the cryogen boil-
off rate, as a function of the cryogen sensibility, S, for
...