ISO 704:2000

Terminology work - Principles and methods

Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes

La présente Norme internationale établit et harmonise les principes fondamentaux et les méthodes pour préparer et compiler des terminologies, qu'il s'agisse d'activités menées dans le cadre de la normalisation ou non. La présente Norme internationale décrit les liens existant entre les objets, les concepts, et leurs représentations par des terminologies. Elle fixe également des principes généraux régissant la formation des désignations et la formulation des définitions. Pour une compréhension complète et approfondie de ces principes, des connaissances de fond de la terminologie sont nécessaires. Il s'agit de principes de nature générale et la présente Norme internationale s'applique aux travaux terminologiques effectués dans des domaines scientifiques, technologiques, industriels, administratifs, ainsi que dans les autres domaines de la connaissance. La présente Norme internationale ne décrit pas les méthodes pour la présentation des Normes internationales de terminologie, celles-ci étant traitées dans l'ISO 10241.

Terminološko delo - Načela in metode

General Information

• Status: Withdrawn
• Publication Date: 22-Nov-2000
• Withdrawal Date: 22-Nov-2000
• ICS: 01.020 - Terminology (principles and coordination)
• Technical Committee: ISO/TC 37/SC 1 - Principles and methods
• Drafting Committee: ISO/TC 37/SC 1 - Principles and methods
• Current Stage: 9599 - Withdrawal of International Standard
• Start Date: 30-Oct-2009
• Completion Date: 13-Dec-2025
• Ref Project: SIST ISO 704:2003 - Terminology work -- Principles and methods

Relations

• Consolidated By: ISO 10215:2010 - Anodizing of aluminium and its alloys - Visual determination of image clarity of anodic oxidation coatings - Chart scale method
• Effective Date: 06-Jun-2022
• Revises: ISO 704:1987 - Principles and methods of terminology
• Effective Date: 15-Apr-2008
• Revised: ISO 704:2009 - Terminology work - Principles and methods
• Effective Date: 15-Apr-2008

Standards Content (Sample)

INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 704
Second edition
2000-11-15
Terminology work — Principles and
methods
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
Reference number
©
ISO 2000
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ii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

Contents Page
Foreword.v
0 Introduction.vi
1 Scope .1
2 Normative references .1
3 Terms and definitions .2
4 Objects.2
5 Concepts.2
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology.2
5.2 Individual and general concepts.3
5.3 Characteristics.3
5.3.1 Nature of characteristics.3
5.3.2 Intension and extension.4
5.3.3 Essential vs. non-essential characteristics .4
5.3.4 Delimiting characteristics .5
5.4 Concept relations.5
5.4.1 Types of concept relations .5
5.4.2 Hierarchical relations .6
5.4.3 Associative relations.12
5.5 Concept systems .12
5.5.1 Nature of concept systems.12
5.5.2 Types of concept systems.13
5.6 Developing concept systems .14
6 Definitions .15
6.1 Nature of definitions.15
6.2 Types of definitions.15
6.2.1 Intensional definitions.15
6.2.2 Extensional definitions .17
6.3 Definition writing .17
6.3.1 Principles for definition writing.17
6.3.2 Systemic nature of definitions .18
6.3.3 Conciseness.18
6.3.4 Subject field.19
6.3.5 Principle of substitution.20
6.4 Deficient definitions.20
6.4.1 Circular definitions .20
6.4.2 Incomplete definitions.21
6.4.3 Negative definitions.22
6.5 Notes .22
6.6 Graphic representations .23
7 Designations .24
7.1 Types of designations.24
7.2 Terms .24
7.2.1 Term-concept relations .24
7.2.2 Monosemy .24
7.2.3 Homonymy .24
7.2.4 Synonymy.25
7.3 Term formation.25
7.3.1 Principles for term formation .25
7.3.2 Transparency.25
7.3.3 Consistency.26
7.3.4 Appropriateness .26
7.3.5 Linguistic economy .26
7.3.6 Derivability.27
7.3.7 Linguistic correctness.27
7.3.8 Preference for native language .27
7.4 Appellations.27
7.5 Symbols .27
8 Standardization of terminologies.29
8.1 Deprecation of terms.29
8.2 Harmonization .30
8.3 Transliteration and transcription .30
Annex A (informative) Examples of term-formation methods .31
Alphabetical index .36
iv © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO
member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical
committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has
the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in
liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 3.
Draft International Standards adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting.
Publication as an International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this International Standard may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard ISO 704 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 37, Terminology (principles and
coordination), Subcommittee SC 1, Principles of terminology.
This second edition cancels and replaces the first edition (ISO 704:1987), of which it constitutes a technical
revision.
Annex A of this International Standard is for information only.
0 Introduction
0.1 Overview
The terminological principles and methods laid down in this International Standard are based on current thinking
and practices in terminology.
Terminology is multidisciplinary and draws support from a number of disciplines (e.g., logic, epistemology,
philosophy of science, linguistics, information science and cognitive sciences) in its study of concepts and their
representations in special language. It combines elements from many theoretical approaches that deal with the
description, ordering and transfer of knowledge.
In line with current standardization trends to include guiding principles, this International Standard is intended to
standardize the essential elements for quality work in terminology. The general purpose of this International
Standard is to provide a common framework of thinking and explain how this thinking should be implemented by an
organization or individuals involved in terminology.
It is further intended to provide assistance to those involved in terminology management. The principles and
methods should be observed not only for the manipulation of terminological information but also in the planning and
decision-making involved in managing a stock of terminology. The main activities include, but are not limited to the
following:
� identifying concepts and concept relations;
� analysing and modelling concept systems on the basis of identified concepts and concept relations;
� establishing representations of concept systems through concept diagrams;
� defining concepts;
� attributing designations (predominantly terms) to each concept in one or more languages;
� recording and presenting terminological data, principally in print and electronic media (terminography).
Objects, concepts, designations and definitions are fundamental to terminology and therefore form the basis of this
International Standard. Objects are perceived or conceived and abstracted into concepts which, in special
language, are represented by designations and described in definitions. A set of designations belonging to one
special language constitutes the terminology of a specific subject field.
0.2 Conventions and notation
In this International Standard and for the English language, “terminology” used in the singular and without an article
designates the discipline, while “terminology” used in the plural or preceded by an article refers to the set of
designations of a particular subject field, such as the terminology of chemistry.
For the sake of consistency in reference to objects, concepts, definitions and designations, the following wording
conventions are used in this International Standard:
� objects
are perceived or conceived;
are abstracted or conceptualized into concepts;
vi © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

� concepts
depict or correspond to a set of objects;
are represented or expressed in language by designations or by definitions;
are organized into concept systems;
� designations (terms, appellations or symbols)
designate or represent a concept;
are attributed to a concept;
� definitions
define or describe the concept.
The more complex a concept system, the more useful it is to clarify relations among concepts by representing them
formally or graphically. Concept relations can be represented formally in a list. The formal representation used in
this International Standard is a numbered and indented list as exemplified by the following:
The graphic representations used in this International Standard are the most typical ones.
Tree diagram to represent generic concept relations
Rake or bracket diagram to represent partitive concept
relations
Line with arrowheads at each end to represent
associative concept relations
The notation used throughout this International Standard is as follows:
� terms defined in ISO 1087-1 are in italics;
� concepts are indicated by single quotes;
� designations (terms, appellations or symbols) are in boldface;
� characteristics are underlined;
� examples are boxed.
It should be noted that the examples in this International Standard have been chosen and simplified for illustrative
purposes. The translation into other languages may necessitate the selection of other examples to illustrate the
point.
It should also be noted that the examples of term-formation methods, in informative annex A, are specific to the
English language in the English version and to the French language in the French version. Annex A should not be
translated but adapted to the needs of each language.
viii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 704:2000(E)
Terminology work — Principles and methods
1 Scope
This International Standard establishes and harmonizes the basic principles and methods for preparing and
compiling terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization.
This International Standard describes the links between objects, concepts, and their representations through the
use of terminologies. It also establishes general principles governing the formation of designations and the
formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of these principles requires some background
knowledge of terminology. The principles are general in nature and this International Standard is applicable to
terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial, administrative, and other fields of knowledge.
This International Standard does not stipulate procedures for the layout of International Terminology Standards that
are treated in ISO 10241.
2 Normative references
The following normative documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of
this International Standard. For dated references, subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of these
publications do not apply. However, parties to agreements based on this International Standard are encouraged to
investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions of the normative documents indicated below. For
undated references, the latest edition of the normative document referred to applies. Members of ISO and IEC
maintain registers of currently valid International Standards.
ISO 9:1995, Information and documentation —Transliteration of Cyrillic characters into Latin characters — Slavic
and non-Slavic languages.
ISO 233:1984, Documentation — Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters.
ISO 233-2:1993, Information and documentation — Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters —
Part 2: Arabic language — Simplified transliteration.
ISO 233-3:1999, Information and documentation — Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters —
Part 3: Persian language — Simplified transliteration.
ISO 259:1984, Documentation — Transliteration of Hebrew characters into Latin characters.
ISO 259-2:1994, Information and documentation — Transliteration of Hebrew characters into Latin characters —
Part 2: Simplified transliteration.
ISO 843:1997, Information and documentation — Conversion of Greek characters into Latin characters.
ISO 860:1996, Terminology work — Harmonization of concepts and terms.
1)
ISO 1087-1:— , Terminology work — Vocabulary — Part 1: Theory and application.
ISO 3602:1989, Documentation — Romanization of Japanese (kana script).
ISO 7098:1991, Information and documentation — Romanization of Chinese.
ISO 10241:1992, International terminology standards — Preparation and layout.
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this International Standard, the definitions given in ISO 1087-1 apply. The terminology defined
in ISO 1087-1 appears as italicized terms in this International Standard. It should be noted that terms not italicized
but found and defined in ISO 1087-1 are to be interpreted by their general language meaning.
4 Objects
For the purposes of this International Standard, an object is defined as anything perceived or conceived. Some
objects, concrete objects such as a machine, a diamond, or a river, shall be considered material; other objects shall
be considered immaterial or abstract, such as each manifestation of financial planning, gravity, flowability, or a
conversion ratio; still others shall be considered purely imagined, for example, a unicorn, a philosopher’s stone or a
literary character. In the course of producing a terminology, philosophical discussions on whether an object actually
exists in reality are beyond the scope of this International Standard and shall be avoided. Objects are assumed to
exist and attention shall be focused on how one deals with objects for the purposes of communication.
5 Concepts
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology
To communicate, not every individual object in the world is differentiated and named. Instead, through observation
and a process of abstraction called conceptualization, objects are categorized into mental constructs or units of
thought called concepts which are represented in various forms of communication (object � concept �
communication). This International Standard does not deal with all concepts represented in language but only with
those represented by terminologies. For terminology, concepts are to be considered mental representations of
objects within a specialized context or field.
Concepts are not to be confused with abstract or imagined objects (i.e., concrete, abstract or imagined objects in a
given context are observed and conceptualized mentally and then a designation is attributed to the concept rather
than to the objects themselves). For this International Standard, the link between an object and its designation or
definition is made through the concept, a higher level of abstraction.
Producing a terminology requires understanding the conceptualization that underpins human knowledge in a
subject area. Because a terminology always deals with special language in a particular field of knowledge, the
concept shall be viewed not only as a unit of thought but also as a unit of knowledge.
The concepts contextualized in the special language of the subject field can be expressed in the various forms of
human communication according to the system used. In natural language, concepts can take the form of terms,
appellations, definitions or other linguistic forms; in artificial language, they can take the form of codes or formulae
while in graphics, they can take the form of icons, pictures, diagrams or other graphic representations. Concepts
may also be expressed with the human body as they are in sign language, facial expressions or body movements.
This International Standard does not deal with the expression of concepts by sign or body language.
1) To be published.
2 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

5.2 Individual and general concepts
When the concept depicts a single object,itis calledan individual concept and is represented in special language
as an appellation (e.g., United Nations, Internet, Worldwide Web) or a symbol (e.g: Möbius Loop;
Africa; Statue of Liberty). When the concept depicts a set of two or more objects,itis called a general concept
and, in special languages, the designation takes the form of a term (e.g., floppy disk, liquidity, money market fund,
etc.)orasymbol(�,W,$).
5.3 Characteristics
5.3.1 Nature of characteristics
Concept formation plays a pivotal role in organizing human knowledge because it provides the means for
recognizing objects and for grouping them into meaningful units in a particular field. Objects perceived as sharing
the same properties are grouped into units. Once similar objects, or occasionally a single object, are viewed as a
meaningful unit of thought within a branch of human knowledge, the properties of an object or common to a set of
objects are abstracted as characteristics which are combined as a set in the formation of a concept. Characteristics
are constantly being combined in order to create concepts, although differently in different cultures, fields or
schools of thought. The combination of unique sets of characteristics is represented in special language by a
designation (i.e., a term, appellation or symbol). Since a designation is not attributed to every individual object,
terminological analysis cannot begin unless the specific object in question corresponds to a concept represented
by means of a designation or a definition. Therefore, the methodology used in the analysis of terminologies
requires identifying the context or subject field in question, identifying the properties attributed to objects in the
subject field, determining those properties which are abstracted into characteristics and then combining the
characteristics to form a concept. It may be useful to begin an analysis with those concepts corresponding to
concrete objects, since the characteristics are more easily abstracted given that the properties of the objects can
be physically observed or examined.
Terminological analysis shall begin with the objects in question and the subject field contextualizing the objects in
question. Properties shall be ascribed only to objects.
EXAMPLE 1
The specific object designated by the visual representation below has the following specific properties:
— made of a long, thin piece of graphite;
— the graphite core is surrounded by a wood casing;
— the casing is yellow;
— at one end there is an eraser;
— at the other end, the graphite and casing have been sharpened to a point;
— it is used for writing or making marks.
If the object in example 1 is contextualized in the field of stationery, this particular object is recognized as
belonging to the category of objects that has been conceptualized as lead pencil. In the process of
conceptualization, the properties of the objects forming the set are abstracted into characteristics,thatis, the
properties of the object are converted into generalizations applied to the entire set as opposed to the individual
object, as illustrated in example 2.
Like the properties of objects, characteristics are grouped into types of characteristics such as colour, composition,
function, use, origin, shape, location, movement, etc. To obtain a comprehensive listing, the properties of numerous
objects corresponding to the concept under analysis should be identified followed by their abstraction as
characteristics. For practical purposes, beginning with one of the more typical objects is recommended. The
identification of characteristics shall be based on specialized subject knowledge of the field and often requires
research. Experienced terminologists for whom the concept in question is clear and straightforward may move
directly to identifying the characteristics.
The following example is a preliminary analysis of the concept ‘lead pencil’.
EXAMPLE 2
Object (visual representation): Concept: Designation (term):
abstraction based on the set Lead pencil
of all lead pencils
Category Property Characteristic
Level of abstraction Concreteness Concreteness
Composition Made of a long, thin piece of graphite Graphite core
Composition Wood casing surrounds graphite Graphite core is encased in wood
Colour Casing is yellow Casing may be any colour
Composition At one end there is an eraser One end may have an eraser
Shape Other end is sharpened to a point One end may be sharpened to a point
Usage Graphite and casing sharpened Graphite and casing must be sharpened for usage
for usage
Medium Graphite is the writing medium Graphite is the writing medium
Function Used for writing or making marks Used for writing or making marks
Characteristics shall be used in the analysis of concepts, the modelling of concept systems, in the formulation of
definitions and, as often as possible, in the formation of designations.
5.3.2 Intension and extension
The set of characteristics that come together as a unit to form the concept is called the intension.The objects
viewed as a set and conceptualized into a concept are known as the extension.The two, intension and extension,
are interdependent. For example, the characteristics making up the intension of ‘lead pencil’ determines the
extension, those objects that qualify as lead pencils and vice versa.
5.3.3 Essential vs. non-essential characteristics
Not all characteristics are equally important. For practical purposes, the essential characteristics of the intension
shall be the focal point of any analysis and may differ according to specific fields. Characteristics are considered
essential if they are indispensable for the understanding of the concept in a particular field of knowledge; the
absence of an essential characteristic fundamentally changes the concept. The absence of an essential
characteristic in the course of an analysis will lead to poor or even erroneous understanding of the concept.Inthe
example of the ‘lead pencil’,ifthe characteristic graphite core is encased in wood were removed, the concept
would be radically changed. It would represent a different concept corresponding to a different set of objects.
Therefore, this is an essential characteristic. On the other hand, if the characteristic one end may be sharpened to
a point were removed, the concept would not be altered. Although a lead pencil must be sharpened in order to
write, it still qualifies as a lead pencil, even if it has not been sharpened. Therefore, this characteristic is not
essential to the understanding of the concept of ‘lead pencil’.The essential characteristics of a concept, such as
‘lead pencil’, shall be identified. It is not always necessary to categorize the characteristics explicitly as in example
3; only in cases where the concept in question is highly complex.
4 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

EXAMPLE 3
Level of abstraction 1 Concreteness Essential
Composition 2. Graphite core Essential
Composition 3. Graphite is encased in wood Essential
Colour 4. Casing may be coloured Non-essential
Composition 5. One end may have an eraser Non-essential
Shape 6. One end may be sharpened to a point Non-essential
Usage 7. Must be sharpened for usage Essential
Medium 8. Graphite is the writing medium Essential
Function 9. Used for writing or making marks Essential
It must be noted that the same property of a given object may be abstracted as an essential characteristic of a
concept in one subject field but may be non-essential in another.
5.3.4 Delimiting characteristics
After identifying the essential characteristics that make up the intension of a concept, the terminological analysis
shall be taken a step further. Each essential characteristic of the concept under study shall be analysed in relation
to the related concepts in the concept system. Common or shared characteristics indicate similarities between
concepts; delimiting characteristics signal differences which set a concept apart (see examples 7 and 8). A
delimiting characteristic is an essential characteristic that distinguishes one concept from another. However,
delimiting and common are relative terms. The same essential characteristic may be delimitinginrelationtoone
concept but common in relation to another related concept. Analysing the similarities and differences between
concepts will result in the unique set of characteristics that typify a given concept. This unique combination of
characteristics will situate the concept within a network of related concepts with similar or different characteristics.
The relations between the concepts shall be used to determine the basic structure of the concept system.
Understanding the characteristics used to develop the concept system simplifies the task of defining a concept.
5.4 Concept relations
5.4.1 Types of concept relations
Concepts do not exist as isolated units of thought but always in relation to each other. Our thought processes
constantly create and refine the relations between concepts, whether these relations are formally acknowledged or
not.
In organizing concepts into a concept system, it is necessary to bear in mind the field of knowledge that gave rise
to the concept and to consider the expectations and objectives of the target users. The subject field shall act as the
framework within which the concept field, the set of related but unstructured concepts, is established.
EXAMPLE 4
If our task were to list and compile the terminology of writing instruments for the stationery industry, our example of ‘lead
pencil’ would form part of the concept field dealing with pencils as conceptualized by those in the stationery industry. Pencils
outside the field of stationery, such as eyebrow pencil or styptic pencil, would be excluded.
To model a concept system,the concepts of the concept field have to be examined and compared. For the
purposes of this International Standard, at least the following relations shall be used to model a concept system:
� hierarchical relations:
� generic relations;
� partitive relations;
� associative relations.
5.4.2 Hierarchical relations
5.4.2.1 Types of hierarchical relations
In a hierarchical relation, concepts are organized into levels where the superordinate concept is subdivided into at
least one subordinate concept. Subordinate concepts at the same level and having the same criterion of
subdivision are called coordinate concepts.The coordinate concepts resulting from the application of the same
criterion of subdivision to the superordinate concept constitute a dimension. A superordinate concept can have
more than one dimension, in which case the concept system is said to be multidimensional. Concepts are
superordinate, subordinate or coordinate, not on their own, but always in relation to each other in a hierarchy.
In this International Standard, two types of hierarchical relations are recognized:
� generic relations;
� partitive relations.
5.4.2.2 Generic relations
A generic relation exists between two concepts when the intension of the subordinate concept includes the
intension of the superordinate concept plus at least one additional delimiting characteristic.The superordinate
concept in a generic relation is called the generic concept and the subordinate concept is called the specific
concept.
In a generic relation, there is an inverse relationship between the intension of a concept and its extension.Hence,
if a concept has a narrow intension,its extension will be relatively broader and, inversely, if the intension is broad,
the extension will be relatively narrower.
EXAMPLE 5
In the concept diagram below, ‘pencil’ is a specific concept in relation to the generic concept ‘writing instrument’. Similarly, the
concepts ‘lead pencil’ and ‘mechanical pencil’ are each a specific concept in relation to the generic concept ‘pencil’.Eachof
the coordinate concepts ‘lead pencil’ and ‘mechanical pencil’ has a generic relation with the generic concept ‘pencil’.The
criterion used to increase the specificity of the concept is the nature of the outer casing and graphite core.
Comparing the essential characteristics of a concept and its related concepts (i.e., generic, coordinate and specific)
may require an adjustment and refinement of the intension.
6 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

EXAMPLE 6
Comparison of the essential characteristics of ‘lead pencil’ with related concepts in example 5
Level of abstraction
1. Concreteness COMMON with those of the generic ‘writing instrument’,the
generic ‘pencil’, and the coordinate ‘mechanical pencil’
Composition 2. Graphite core is fixed DELIMITING in relation to all related concepts in question
Composition 3. Wood casing DELIMITING in relation to all related concepts in question
Usage DELIMITING in relation to all related concepts in question
4. Usage involves the removal
of the casing (i.e., sharpening)
Function 5. Used for writing or making marks
COMMON with those of the generic ‘writing instrument’,
marks the generic ‘pencil’, and the coordinate ‘mechanical
pencil’
When modelling a concept system, one shall concentrate on the essential and delimiting characteristics.
EXAMPLE 7
a
concreteness is part of the intension of the superordinate concept above but is listed here as a reminder that the writing
instruments are concrete objects.
‘Lead pencil’ is merely atypeof ‘pencil’, which in turn is merely a type of ‘writing instrument’. Since the set of all lead
pencils is a subset of all pencils, the intension (set of characteristics)of the generic concept ‘pencil’ is included in the
intension of the specific concept ‘lead pencil’, hence the characteristic type of pencil. Accordingly, the intension of ‘pencil’ is
narrower than that of ‘lead pencil’ while the extension of ‘pencil’ (the number of objects) is broader.
A sequence of concepts reflecting generic relations constitutes a vertical series of concepts, whereas a group of
coordinate concepts,i.e., concepts that rank at the same level of abstraction in a concept system, form a horizontal
series of concepts.
In a generic relation, there may be several ways of subdividing a concept into subordinate concepts depending on
the criteria or type of characteristic chosen. When more than one criterion are used in the construction of a generic
concept system, it is considered multidimensional. Only subordinate concepts on thesamelevel andinthe same
dimension are called coordinate concepts. In a generic concept system, a node may not have an established
designation,ormayhave a designation in one language but not in another.
EXAMPLE 8
‘Lead pencil’ and ‘mechanical pencil’ are coordinate concepts because they share the same dimension; ‘office pencil’ and ‘golf
pencil’ constitute another set of coordinate concepts.
The concept diagram most commonly used to illustrate generic relations in a concept system is the tree diagram as
in example 8 above or the indented list of concepts as in example 9.
EXAMPLE 9
1 writing instrument
1.1 marker
1.2 pencil
1.2.1
1.2.1.1 lead pencil
1.2.1.2 mechanical pencil
1.2.2
1.2.2.1 office pencil
1.2.2.2 golf pencil
1.3 pen …
8 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

5.4.2.3 Partitive relations
A partitive relation is said to exist when the superordinate concept represents a whole, while the subordinate
concepts represent parts of that whole. The parts come together to form the whole. The superordinate concept in a
partitive relation is called the comprehensive concept and the subordinate concept is called the partitive concept.
Subordinate concepts at the same level and sharing the same dimension are also called coordinate concepts.
Partitive, like generic relations can be expressed as vertical and horizontal series.
The parts that make up the whole may be similar in nature (e.g., atom in an oxygen molecule) or distinctly different
from each other. One or more parts may be compulsory (i.e., essential) or optional (i.e., non-essential). Some
parts are not only essential but delimiting in that they allow the whole to be distinguished from other similar
comprehensive concepts. Some parts may be multiple (e.g., concept of ‘page’ as part of a book) or variable within
a range (e.g., a pen may have as a part an ink reservoir, an ink cartridge or an ink refill).
EXAMPLE 10
In the following concept diagram,the comprehensive concept ‘mechanical pencil’ represents a whole, while the partitive
concepts ‘barrel’, ‘lead-advance mechanism’, ‘lead (refill)’, ‘clip’, ‘refill eraser’,and ‘finger grip’ are the parts that make up the
whole. The parts ‘clip’, ‘eraser (refill)’ and ‘finger grip’ are optional since they are not found on all mechanical pencils. The
parts, ‘barrel’, ‘lead-advance mechanism’ and ‘lead (refill)’ are essential components of all mechanical pencils. The partitive
concepts ‘lead (refill)’ and ‘lead-advance mechanism’ are delimiting parts because they behave like delimiting characteristics in
that they allow one to distinguish the comprehensive concept, mechanical pencil, from other closely related writing instruments
such as ball-point pens, fine-tipped markers, etc.
To identify the essential characteristics of the partitive concepts, it is necessary to determine the intension of the
comprehensive concept first.
EXAMPLE 11
In relation to other pencils (see example 8), one of the delimiting characteristics of the concept ‘mechanical pencil’ is the
graphite core is not fixed. It should be noted that, as in the case of delimiting characteristics, considering a part to be delimiting
is relative and depends on the concept system and on the coordinate concepts being compared.
In the partitive relation (see example 10), the graphite core is conceptualized as ‘lead (refill)’. Hence, the characteristic
replaceable is an essential characteristic of the partitive concept ‘lead (refill)’.
A partitive concept system does not always allow for a complete analysis of a concept.If a partitive concept is not
particular to the comprehensive concept, then the extension of the partitive concept is not accounted for completely
and essential characteristics of its intension may be lacking. A partitive concept shall be defined on the basis of a
partitive relation only if the complete extension and the essential characteristics of the intension can be determined.
EXAMPLE 12
The part ‘barrel’ is not conceptually unique to mechanical pencils. In English, the barrel of a mechanical pencil does not form a
separate concept with its own designation but rather constitutes a portion of the set of objects that make up the extension of
the concept ‘barrel’. Other types of writing instruments also have barrels. The complete extension of the concept ‘barrel’ can
only be determined when ‘barrel’ is analysed in relation to the more generic concept ‘writing instrument’.
The parts ‘lead-advance mechanism’, ‘lead (refill)’ and ‘eraser (refill)’ designate partitive concepts with complete extensions.
Only the terms ‘lead-advance mechanism’, ‘lead (refill)’ and ‘eraser (refill)’ should be defined on the basis of partitive relations.
Hierarchical relations, generic or partitive, may be either monodimensional or multidimensional.
10 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

EXAMPLE 13
Dimension: Parts of the concept ‘tree’ viewed as a living plant
Comprehensive concept: Partitive concepts:
tree root, trunk, branch, leaf
Dimension: Parts of the concept ‘tree’ view
...

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
01-april-2003
7HUPLQRORãNRGHOR1DþHODLQPHWRGH
Terminology work -- Principles and methods
Travail terminologique -- Principes et méthodes
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: ISO 704:2000
ICS:
01.020 7HUPLQRORJLMDQDþHODLQ Terminology (principles and
NRRUGLQDFLMD coordination)
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 704
Second edition
2000-11-15
Terminology work — Principles and
methods
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
Reference number
©
ISO 2000
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ii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

Contents Page
Foreword.v
0 Introduction.vi
1 Scope .1
2 Normative references .1
3 Terms and definitions .2
4 Objects.2
5 Concepts.2
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology.2
5.2 Individual and general concepts.3
5.3 Characteristics.3
5.3.1 Nature of characteristics.3
5.3.2 Intension and extension.4
5.3.3 Essential vs. non-essential characteristics .4
5.3.4 Delimiting characteristics .5
5.4 Concept relations.5
5.4.1 Types of concept relations .5
5.4.2 Hierarchical relations .6
5.4.3 Associative relations.12
5.5 Concept systems .12
5.5.1 Nature of concept systems.12
5.5.2 Types of concept systems.13
5.6 Developing concept systems .14
6 Definitions .15
6.1 Nature of definitions.15
6.2 Types of definitions.15
6.2.1 Intensional definitions.15
6.2.2 Extensional definitions .17
6.3 Definition writing .17
6.3.1 Principles for definition writing.17
6.3.2 Systemic nature of definitions .18
6.3.3 Conciseness.18
6.3.4 Subject field.19
6.3.5 Principle of substitution.20
6.4 Deficient definitions.20
6.4.1 Circular definitions .20
6.4.2 Incomplete definitions.21
6.4.3 Negative definitions.22
6.5 Notes .22
6.6 Graphic representations .23
7 Designations .24
7.1 Types of designations.24
7.2 Terms .24
7.2.1 Term-concept relations .24
7.2.2 Monosemy .24
7.2.3 Homonymy .24
7.2.4 Synonymy.25
7.3 Term formation.25
7.3.1 Principles for term formation .25
7.3.2 Transparency.25
7.3.3 Consistency.26
7.3.4 Appropriateness .26
7.3.5 Linguistic economy .26
7.3.6 Derivability.27
7.3.7 Linguistic correctness.27
7.3.8 Preference for native language .27
7.4 Appellations.27
7.5 Symbols .27
8 Standardization of terminologies.29
8.1 Deprecation of terms.29
8.2 Harmonization .30
8.3 Transliteration and transcription .30
Annex A (informative) Examples of term-formation methods .31
Alphabetical index .36
iv © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO
member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical
committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has
the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in
liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 3.
Draft International Standards adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting.
Publication as an International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this International Standard may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard ISO 704 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 37, Terminology (principles and
coordination), Subcommittee SC 1, Principles of terminology.
This second edition cancels and replaces the first edition (ISO 704:1987), of which it constitutes a technical
revision.
Annex A of this International Standard is for information only.
0 Introduction
0.1 Overview
The terminological principles and methods laid down in this International Standard are based on current thinking
and practices in terminology.
Terminology is multidisciplinary and draws support from a number of disciplines (e.g., logic, epistemology,
philosophy of science, linguistics, information science and cognitive sciences) in its study of concepts and their
representations in special language. It combines elements from many theoretical approaches that deal with the
description, ordering and transfer of knowledge.
In line with current standardization trends to include guiding principles, this International Standard is intended to
standardize the essential elements for quality work in terminology. The general purpose of this International
Standard is to provide a common framework of thinking and explain how this thinking should be implemented by an
organization or individuals involved in terminology.
It is further intended to provide assistance to those involved in terminology management. The principles and
methods should be observed not only for the manipulation of terminological information but also in the planning and
decision-making involved in managing a stock of terminology. The main activities include, but are not limited to the
following:
� identifying concepts and concept relations;
� analysing and modelling concept systems on the basis of identified concepts and concept relations;
� establishing representations of concept systems through concept diagrams;
� defining concepts;
� attributing designations (predominantly terms) to each concept in one or more languages;
� recording and presenting terminological data, principally in print and electronic media (terminography).
Objects, concepts, designations and definitions are fundamental to terminology and therefore form the basis of this
International Standard. Objects are perceived or conceived and abstracted into concepts which, in special
language, are represented by designations and described in definitions. A set of designations belonging to one
special language constitutes the terminology of a specific subject field.
0.2 Conventions and notation
In this International Standard and for the English language, “terminology” used in the singular and without an article
designates the discipline, while “terminology” used in the plural or preceded by an article refers to the set of
designations of a particular subject field, such as the terminology of chemistry.
For the sake of consistency in reference to objects, concepts, definitions and designations, the following wording
conventions are used in this International Standard:
� objects
are perceived or conceived;
are abstracted or conceptualized into concepts;
vi © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

� concepts
depict or correspond to a set of objects;
are represented or expressed in language by designations or by definitions;
are organized into concept systems;
� designations (terms, appellations or symbols)
designate or represent a concept;
are attributed to a concept;
� definitions
define or describe the concept.
The more complex a concept system, the more useful it is to clarify relations among concepts by representing them
formally or graphically. Concept relations can be represented formally in a list. The formal representation used in
this International Standard is a numbered and indented list as exemplified by the following:
The graphic representations used in this International Standard are the most typical ones.
Tree diagram to represent generic concept relations
Rake or bracket diagram to represent partitive concept
relations
Line with arrowheads at each end to represent
associative concept relations
The notation used throughout this International Standard is as follows:
� terms defined in ISO 1087-1 are in italics;
� concepts are indicated by single quotes;
� designations (terms, appellations or symbols) are in boldface;
� characteristics are underlined;
� examples are boxed.
It should be noted that the examples in this International Standard have been chosen and simplified for illustrative
purposes. The translation into other languages may necessitate the selection of other examples to illustrate the
point.
It should also be noted that the examples of term-formation methods, in informative annex A, are specific to the
English language in the English version and to the French language in the French version. Annex A should not be
translated but adapted to the needs of each language.
viii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 704:2000(E)
Terminology work — Principles and methods
1 Scope
This International Standard establishes and harmonizes the basic principles and methods for preparing and
compiling terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization.
This International Standard describes the links between objects, concepts, and their representations through the
use of terminologies. It also establishes general principles governing the formation of designations and the
formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of these principles requires some background
knowledge of terminology. The principles are general in nature and this International Standard is applicable to
terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial, administrative, and other fields of knowledge.
This International Standard does not stipulate procedures for the layout of International Terminology Standards that
are treated in ISO 10241.
2 Normative references
The following normative documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of
this International Standard. For dated references, subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of these
publications do not apply. However, parties to agreements based on this International Standard are encouraged to
investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions of the normative documents indicated below. For
undated references, the latest edition of the normative document referred to applies. Members of ISO and IEC
maintain registers of currently valid International Standards.
ISO 9:1995, Information and documentation —Transliteration of Cyrillic characters into Latin characters — Slavic
and non-Slavic languages.
ISO 233:1984, Documentation — Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters.
ISO 233-2:1993, Information and documentation — Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters —
Part 2: Arabic language — Simplified transliteration.
ISO 233-3:1999, Information and documentation — Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters —
Part 3: Persian language — Simplified transliteration.
ISO 259:1984, Documentation — Transliteration of Hebrew characters into Latin characters.
ISO 259-2:1994, Information and documentation — Transliteration of Hebrew characters into Latin characters —
Part 2: Simplified transliteration.
ISO 843:1997, Information and documentation — Conversion of Greek characters into Latin characters.
ISO 860:1996, Terminology work — Harmonization of concepts and terms.
1)
ISO 1087-1:— , Terminology work — Vocabulary — Part 1: Theory and application.
ISO 3602:1989, Documentation — Romanization of Japanese (kana script).
ISO 7098:1991, Information and documentation — Romanization of Chinese.
ISO 10241:1992, International terminology standards — Preparation and layout.
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this International Standard, the definitions given in ISO 1087-1 apply. The terminology defined
in ISO 1087-1 appears as italicized terms in this International Standard. It should be noted that terms not italicized
but found and defined in ISO 1087-1 are to be interpreted by their general language meaning.
4 Objects
For the purposes of this International Standard, an object is defined as anything perceived or conceived. Some
objects, concrete objects such as a machine, a diamond, or a river, shall be considered material; other objects shall
be considered immaterial or abstract, such as each manifestation of financial planning, gravity, flowability, or a
conversion ratio; still others shall be considered purely imagined, for example, a unicorn, a philosopher’s stone or a
literary character. In the course of producing a terminology, philosophical discussions on whether an object actually
exists in reality are beyond the scope of this International Standard and shall be avoided. Objects are assumed to
exist and attention shall be focused on how one deals with objects for the purposes of communication.
5 Concepts
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology
To communicate, not every individual object in the world is differentiated and named. Instead, through observation
and a process of abstraction called conceptualization, objects are categorized into mental constructs or units of
thought called concepts which are represented in various forms of communication (object � concept �
communication). This International Standard does not deal with all concepts represented in language but only with
those represented by terminologies. For terminology, concepts are to be considered mental representations of
objects within a specialized context or field.
Concepts are not to be confused with abstract or imagined objects (i.e., concrete, abstract or imagined objects in a
given context are observed and conceptualized mentally and then a designation is attributed to the concept rather
than to the objects themselves). For this International Standard, the link between an object and its designation or
definition is made through the concept, a higher level of abstraction.
Producing a terminology requires understanding the conceptualization that underpins human knowledge in a
subject area. Because a terminology always deals with special language in a particular field of knowledge, the
concept shall be viewed not only as a unit of thought but also as a unit of knowledge.
The concepts contextualized in the special language of the subject field can be expressed in the various forms of
human communication according to the system used. In natural language, concepts can take the form of terms,
appellations, definitions or other linguistic forms; in artificial language, they can take the form of codes or formulae
while in graphics, they can take the form of icons, pictures, diagrams or other graphic representations. Concepts
may also be expressed with the human body as they are in sign language, facial expressions or body movements.
This International Standard does not deal with the expression of concepts by sign or body language.
1) To be published.
2 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

5.2 Individual and general concepts
When the concept depicts a single object,itis calledan individual concept and is represented in special language
as an appellation (e.g., United Nations, Internet, Worldwide Web) or a symbol (e.g: Möbius Loop;
Africa; Statue of Liberty). When the concept depicts a set of two or more objects,itis called a general concept
and, in special languages, the designation takes the form of a term (e.g., floppy disk, liquidity, money market fund,
etc.)orasymbol(�,W,$).
5.3 Characteristics
5.3.1 Nature of characteristics
Concept formation plays a pivotal role in organizing human knowledge because it provides the means for
recognizing objects and for grouping them into meaningful units in a particular field. Objects perceived as sharing
the same properties are grouped into units. Once similar objects, or occasionally a single object, are viewed as a
meaningful unit of thought within a branch of human knowledge, the properties of an object or common to a set of
objects are abstracted as characteristics which are combined as a set in the formation of a concept. Characteristics
are constantly being combined in order to create concepts, although differently in different cultures, fields or
schools of thought. The combination of unique sets of characteristics is represented in special language by a
designation (i.e., a term, appellation or symbol). Since a designation is not attributed to every individual object,
terminological analysis cannot begin unless the specific object in question corresponds to a concept represented
by means of a designation or a definition. Therefore, the methodology used in the analysis of terminologies
requires identifying the context or subject field in question, identifying the properties attributed to objects in the
subject field, determining those properties which are abstracted into characteristics and then combining the
characteristics to form a concept. It may be useful to begin an analysis with those concepts corresponding to
concrete objects, since the characteristics are more easily abstracted given that the properties of the objects can
be physically observed or examined.
Terminological analysis shall begin with the objects in question and the subject field contextualizing the objects in
question. Properties shall be ascribed only to objects.
EXAMPLE 1
The specific object designated by the visual representation below has the following specific properties:
— made of a long, thin piece of graphite;
— the graphite core is surrounded by a wood casing;
— the casing is yellow;
— at one end there is an eraser;
— at the other end, the graphite and casing have been sharpened to a point;
— it is used for writing or making marks.
If the object in example 1 is contextualized in the field of stationery, this particular object is recognized as
belonging to the category of objects that has been conceptualized as lead pencil. In the process of
conceptualization, the properties of the objects forming the set are abstracted into characteristics,thatis, the
properties of the object are converted into generalizations applied to the entire set as opposed to the individual
object, as illustrated in example 2.
Like the properties of objects, characteristics are grouped into types of characteristics such as colour, composition,
function, use, origin, shape, location, movement, etc. To obtain a comprehensive listing, the properties of numerous
objects corresponding to the concept under analysis should be identified followed by their abstraction as
characteristics. For practical purposes, beginning with one of the more typical objects is recommended. The
identification of characteristics shall be based on specialized subject knowledge of the field and often requires
research. Experienced terminologists for whom the concept in question is clear and straightforward may move
directly to identifying the characteristics.
The following example is a preliminary analysis of the concept ‘lead pencil’.
EXAMPLE 2
Object (visual representation): Concept: Designation (term):
abstraction based on the set Lead pencil
of all lead pencils
Category Property Characteristic
Level of abstraction Concreteness Concreteness
Composition Made of a long, thin piece of graphite Graphite core
Composition Wood casing surrounds graphite Graphite core is encased in wood
Colour Casing is yellow Casing may be any colour
Composition At one end there is an eraser One end may have an eraser
Shape Other end is sharpened to a point One end may be sharpened to a point
Usage Graphite and casing sharpened Graphite and casing must be sharpened for usage
for usage
Medium Graphite is the writing medium Graphite is the writing medium
Function Used for writing or making marks Used for writing or making marks
Characteristics shall be used in the analysis of concepts, the modelling of concept systems, in the formulation of
definitions and, as often as possible, in the formation of designations.
5.3.2 Intension and extension
The set of characteristics that come together as a unit to form the concept is called the intension.The objects
viewed as a set and conceptualized into a concept are known as the extension.The two, intension and extension,
are interdependent. For example, the characteristics making up the intension of ‘lead pencil’ determines the
extension, those objects that qualify as lead pencils and vice versa.
5.3.3 Essential vs. non-essential characteristics
Not all characteristics are equally important. For practical purposes, the essential characteristics of the intension
shall be the focal point of any analysis and may differ according to specific fields. Characteristics are considered
essential if they are indispensable for the understanding of the concept in a particular field of knowledge; the
absence of an essential characteristic fundamentally changes the concept. The absence of an essential
characteristic in the course of an analysis will lead to poor or even erroneous understanding of the concept.Inthe
example of the ‘lead pencil’,ifthe characteristic graphite core is encased in wood were removed, the concept
would be radically changed. It would represent a different concept corresponding to a different set of objects.
Therefore, this is an essential characteristic. On the other hand, if the characteristic one end may be sharpened to
a point were removed, the concept would not be altered. Although a lead pencil must be sharpened in order to
write, it still qualifies as a lead pencil, even if it has not been sharpened. Therefore, this characteristic is not
essential to the understanding of the concept of ‘lead pencil’.The essential characteristics of a concept, such as
‘lead pencil’, shall be identified. It is not always necessary to categorize the characteristics explicitly as in example
3; only in cases where the concept in question is highly complex.
4 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

EXAMPLE 3
Level of abstraction 1 Concreteness Essential
Composition 2. Graphite core Essential
Composition 3. Graphite is encased in wood Essential
Colour 4. Casing may be coloured Non-essential
Composition 5. One end may have an eraser Non-essential
Shape 6. One end may be sharpened to a point Non-essential
Usage 7. Must be sharpened for usage Essential
Medium 8. Graphite is the writing medium Essential
Function 9. Used for writing or making marks Essential
It must be noted that the same property of a given object may be abstracted as an essential characteristic of a
concept in one subject field but may be non-essential in another.
5.3.4 Delimiting characteristics
After identifying the essential characteristics that make up the intension of a concept, the terminological analysis
shall be taken a step further. Each essential characteristic of the concept under study shall be analysed in relation
to the related concepts in the concept system. Common or shared characteristics indicate similarities between
concepts; delimiting characteristics signal differences which set a concept apart (see examples 7 and 8). A
delimiting characteristic is an essential characteristic that distinguishes one concept from another. However,
delimiting and common are relative terms. The same essential characteristic may be delimitinginrelationtoone
concept but common in relation to another related concept. Analysing the similarities and differences between
concepts will result in the unique set of characteristics that typify a given concept. This unique combination of
characteristics will situate the concept within a network of related concepts with similar or different characteristics.
The relations between the concepts shall be used to determine the basic structure of the concept system.
Understanding the characteristics used to develop the concept system simplifies the task of defining a concept.
5.4 Concept relations
5.4.1 Types of concept relations
Concepts do not exist as isolated units of thought but always in relation to each other. Our thought processes
constantly create and refine the relations between concepts, whether these relations are formally acknowledged or
not.
In organizing concepts into a concept system, it is necessary to bear in mind the field of knowledge that gave rise
to the concept and to consider the expectations and objectives of the target users. The subject field shall act as the
framework within which the concept field, the set of related but unstructured concepts, is established.
EXAMPLE 4
If our task were to list and compile the terminology of writing instruments for the stationery industry, our example of ‘lead
pencil’ would form part of the concept field dealing with pencils as conceptualized by those in the stationery industry. Pencils
outside the field of stationery, such as eyebrow pencil or styptic pencil, would be excluded.
To model a concept system,the concepts of the concept field have to be examined and compared. For the
purposes of this International Standard, at least the following relations shall be used to model a concept system:
� hierarchical relations:
� generic relations;
� partitive relations;
� associative relations.
5.4.2 Hierarchical relations
5.4.2.1 Types of hierarchical relations
In a hierarchical relation, concepts are organized into levels where the superordinate concept is subdivided into at
least one subordinate concept. Subordinate concepts at the same level and having the same criterion of
subdivision are called coordinate concepts.The coordinate concepts resulting from the application of the same
criterion of subdivision to the superordinate concept constitute a dimension. A superordinate concept can have
more than one dimension, in which case the concept system is said to be multidimensional. Concepts are
superordinate, subordinate or coordinate, not on their own, but always in relation to each other in a hierarchy.
In this International Standard, two types of hierarchical relations are recognized:
� generic relations;
� partitive relations.
5.4.2.2 Generic relations
A generic relation exists between two concepts when the intension of the subordinate concept includes the
intension of the superordinate concept plus at least one additional delimiting characteristic.The superordinate
concept in a generic relation is called the generic concept and the subordinate concept is called the specific
concept.
In a generic relation, there is an inverse relationship between the intension of a concept and its extension.Hence,
if a concept has a narrow intension,its extension will be relatively broader and, inversely, if the intension is broad,
the extension will be relatively narrower.
EXAMPLE 5
In the concept diagram below, ‘pencil’ is a specific concept in relation to the generic concept ‘writing instrument’. Similarly, the
concepts ‘lead pencil’ and ‘mechanical pencil’ are each a specific concept in relation to the generic concept ‘pencil’.Eachof
the coordinate concepts ‘lead pencil’ and ‘mechanical pencil’ has a generic relation with the generic concept ‘pencil’.The
criterion used to increase the specificity of the concept is the nature of the outer casing and graphite core.
Comparing the essential characteristics of a concept and its related concepts (i.e., generic, coordinate and specific)
may require an adjustment and refinement of the intension.
6 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

EXAMPLE 6
Comparison of the essential characteristics of ‘lead pencil’ with related concepts in example 5
Level of abstraction
1. Concreteness COMMON with those of the generic ‘writing instrument’,the
generic ‘pencil’, and the coordinate ‘mechanical pencil’
Composition 2. Graphite core is fixed DELIMITING in relation to all related concepts in question
Composition 3. Wood casing DELIMITING in relation to all related concepts in question
Usage DELIMITING in relation to all related concepts in question
4. Usage involves the removal
of the casing (i.e., sharpening)
Function 5. Used for writing or making marks
COMMON with those of the generic ‘writing instrument’,
marks the generic ‘pencil’, and the coordinate ‘mechanical
pencil’
When modelling a concept system, one shall concentrate on the essential and delimiting characteristics.
EXAMPLE 7
a
concreteness is part of the intension of the superordinate concept above but is listed here as a reminder that the writing
instruments are concrete objects.
‘Lead pencil’ is merely atypeof ‘pencil’, which in turn is merely a type of ‘writing instrument’. Since the set of all lead
pencils is a subset of all pencils, the intension (set of characteristics)of the generic concept ‘pencil’ is included in the
intension of the specific concept ‘lead pencil’, hence the characteristic type of pencil. Accordingly, the intension of ‘pencil’ is
narrower than that of ‘lead pencil’ while the extension of ‘pencil’ (the number of objects) is broader.
A sequence of concepts reflecting generic relations constitutes a vertical series of concepts, whereas a group of
coordinate concepts,i.e., concepts that rank at the same level of abstraction in a concept system, form a horizontal
series of concepts.
In a generic relation, there may be several ways of subdividing a concept into subordinate concepts depending on
the criteria or type of characteristic chosen. When more than one criterion are used in the construction of a generic
concept system, it is considered multidimensional. Only subordinate concepts on thesamelevel andinthe same
dimension are called coordinate concepts. In a generic concept system, a node may not have an established
designation,ormayhave a designation in one language but not in another.
EXAMPLE 8
‘Lead pencil’ and ‘mechanical pencil’ are coordinate concepts because they share the same dimension; ‘office pencil’ and ‘golf
pencil’ constitute another set of coordinate concepts.
The concept diagram most commonly used to illustrate generic relations in a concept system is the tree diagram as
in example 8 above or the indented list of concepts as in example 9.
EXAMPLE 9
1 writing instrument
1.1 marker
1.2 pencil
1.2.1
1.2.1.1 lead pencil
1.2.1.2 mechanical pencil
1.2.2
1.2.2.1 office pencil
1.2.2.2 golf pencil
1.3 pen …
8 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

5.4.2.3 Partitive relations
A partitive relation is said to exist when the superordinate concept represents a whole, while the subordinate
concepts represent parts of that whole. The parts come together to form the whole. The superordinate concept in a
partitive relation is called the comprehensive concept and the subordinate concept is called the partitive concept.
Subordinate concepts at the same level and sharing the same dimension are also called coordinate concepts.
Partitive, like generic relations can be expressed as vertical and horizontal series.
The parts that make up the whole may be similar in nature (e.g., atom in an oxygen molecule) or distinctly different
from each other. One or more parts may be compulsory (i.e., essential) or optional (i.e., non-essential). Some
parts are not only essential but delimiting in that they allow the whole to be distinguished from other similar
comprehensive concepts. Some parts may be multiple (e.g., concept of ‘page’ as part of a book) or variable within
a range (e.g., a pen may have as a part an ink reservoir, an ink cartridge or an ink refill).
EXAMPLE 10
In the following concept diagram,the comprehensive concept ‘mechanical pencil’ represents a whole, while the partitive
concepts ‘barrel’, ‘lead-advance mechanism’, ‘lead (refill)’, ‘clip’, ‘refill eraser’,and ‘finger grip’ are the parts that make up the
whole. The parts ‘clip’, ‘eraser (refill)’ and ‘finger grip’ are optional since they are not found on all mechanical pencils. The
parts, ‘barrel’, ‘lead-advance mechanism’ and ‘lead (refill)’ are essential components of all mechanical pencils. The partitive
concepts ‘lead (refill)’ and ‘lead-advance mechanism’ are delimiting parts because they behave like delimiting characteristics in
that they allow one to distinguish the comprehensive concept, mechanical pencil, from other closely related writing instruments
such as ball-point pens, fine-tipped markers, etc.
To identify the essential characteristics of the partitive concepts, it is necessary to determine the intension of the
comprehensive concept first.
EXAMPLE 11
In relation to other pencils (see example 8), one of the delimiting characteristics of the concept ‘mechanical pencil’ is the
graphite core is not fixed. It should be noted that, as in the case of delimiting characteristics, considering a part to be delimiting
is relative and depends on the concept system and on the coordinate concepts being compared.
In the partitive relation (see example 10), the graphite core is conceptualized as ‘lead (refill)’. Hence, the characteristic
replaceable is an essential characteristic of the partitive concept ‘lead (refill)’.
A partitive concept system does not always allow for a complete analysis of a concept.If a partitive concept is not
particular to the comprehensive concept, then the extension of the partitive concept is not accounted for completely
and essential characteristics of its intension may be lacking. A partitive concept shall be defined on the basis of a
partitive r
...

NORME ISO
INTERNATIONALE 704
Deuxième édition
2000-11-15
Travail terminologique — Principes et
méthodes
Terminology work — Principles and methods
Numéro de référence
©
ISO 2000
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ii © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

Sommaire Page
Avant-propos.v
0 Introduction.vi
1 Domaine d'application.1
2Références normatives .1
3Termesetdéfinitions.2
4 Objets.2
5 Concepts.2
5.1 Nature des concepts en terminologie.2
5.2 Concept unique et concept général.3
5.3 Caractères .3
5.3.1 Nature des caractères .3
5.3.2 Compréhension et extension .4
5.3.3 Caractères essentiels et caractères non essentiels .5
5.3.4 Caractères distinctifs .5
5.4 Relations entre concepts .5
5.4.1 Types de relations entre concepts.5
5.4.2 Relations hiérarchiques .6
5.4.3 Relations associatives .13
5.5 Systèmes de concepts .13
5.5.1 Nature des systèmes de concepts.13
5.5.2 Types de systèmes de concepts.14
5.6 Élaboration des systèmes de concepts .15
6Définitions .16
6.1 Nature des définitions .16
6.2 Types de définitions .16
6.2.1 Définitions par compréhension.16
6.2.2 Définitions par extension.18
6.3 Rédaction de définitions .19
6.3.1 Principes de rédaction de définitions.19
6.3.2 Nature systémique des définitions .20
6.3.3 Concision.20
6.3.4 Domaine.20
6.3.5 Principe de substitution.21
6.4 Mauvaises définitions .21
6.4.1 Définitions circulaires .21
6.4.2 Définitions incomplètes .22
6.4.3 Définitions sous forme négative .24
6.5 Notes .24
6.6 Représentations graphiques .24
7Désignations .25
7.1 Types de désignations .25
7.2 Termes .26
7.2.1 Relations terme-concept.26
7.2.2 Monosémie .26
7.2.3 Homonymie .26
7.2.4 Synonymie.26
7.3 Formation des termes .27
7.3.1 Principes de formation des termes.27
7.3.2 Motivation .27
7.3.3 Cohérence.27
7.3.4 Adéquation .28
7.3.5 Économie linguistique.28
7.3.6 Capacité de dérivation.28
7.3.7 Exactitude linguistique.28
7.3.8 Prédominance de la langue en question.29
7.4 Appellations.29
7.5 Symboles .29
8 Normalisation des terminologies .30
8.1 Statut des termes (termes déconseillés).30
8.2 Harmonisation.31
8.3 Translittération et transcription .31
Annexe A (informative) Exemples de procédés de formation de termes .32
Index alphabétique .37
iv © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

Avant-propos
L'ISO (Organisation internationale de normalisation) est une fédération mondiale d'organismes nationaux de
normalisation (comités membres de l'ISO). L'élaboration des Normes internationales est en général confiéeaux
comités techniques de l'ISO. Chaque comité membre intéressé par une étude aledroit de fairepartie ducomité
technique créé à cet effet. Les organisations internationales, gouvernementales et non gouvernementales, en
liaison avec l'ISO participent également aux travaux. L'ISO collabore étroitement avec la Commission
électrotechnique internationale (CEI) en ce qui concerne la normalisation électrotechnique.
Les Normes internationales sont rédigées conformément aux règles données dans les Directives ISO/CEI, Partie 3.
Les projets de Normes internationales adoptés par les comités techniques sont soumis aux comités membres pour
vote. Leur publication comme Normes internationales requiert l'approbation de 75 % au moins des comités
membres votants.
L’attention est appelée sur le fait que certains des éléments delaprésente Norme internationale peuvent faire
l’objet de droits de propriété intellectuelle ou de droits analogues. L’ISO ne saurait être tenue pour responsable de
ne pas avoir identifié de tels droits de propriété et averti de leur existence.
La Norme internationale ISO 704 a étéélaborée par le comité technique ISO/TC 37, Terminologie (principes et
coordination), sous-comité SC 1, Principes de terminologie.
Cette deuxième édition annule et remplace la première édition (ISO 704:1987), dont elle constitue une révision
technique.
L'annexe A de la présente Norme internationale est donnée uniquement à titre d'information.
0 Introduction
0.1 Vue d'ensemble
Les principes et méthodes de terminologie exposés dans la présente Norme internationale reposent sur les
réflexions et pratiques actuelles en matière de terminologie.
La terminologie est pluridisciplinaire: pour son étude des concepts et de leurs représentations dans une langue de
spécialité, elle a en effet recours à de nombreuses disciplines (par exemple logique, épistémologie, philosophie
des sciences, linguistique, sciences de l'information et sciences cognitives). Elle combine les éléments provenant
de différentes théories traitant de la description, de la mise en ordre et du transfert des connaissances.
Dans la ligne des orientations actuelles de la normalisation visant à inclure des principes directeurs, la présente
Norme internationale est destinée à normaliser les éléments essentiels à des travaux de qualité en terminologie.
L'objectif généraldelaprésente Norme internationale est de fournir un cadre commun d'idées, et d'expliquer
comment il convient qu'une organisation ou des personnes impliquées dans des activités de terminologie mettent
en œuvre ces idées.
La présente Norme internationale est destinée à aider les personnes qui préparent ou gèrent des terminologies. Il
importe d’observer les principes et méthodes énoncés non seulement lors de la manipulation d’informations
terminologiques, mais également lors de la planification et de la prise de décisions en rapport avec la gestion d’un
fonds terminologique. La liste ci-après donne les principales activités, mais n'est pas exhaustive:
� identification de concepts et des relations entre concepts;
� analyse et modélisation de systèmes de concepts sur la base des concepts identifiés et des relations entre
concepts;
� établissement de représentations de ces systèmes de concepts au moyen de schémas conceptuels;
� définition de concepts;
� assignation de désignations (essentiellement des termes) à chaque concept dans une ou plusieurs langues;
� enregistrement et présentation des données terminologiques, essentiellement sur des supports imprimésou
électroniques (terminographie).
Les objets, les concepts, les désignations et les définitions sont les éléments fondamentaux de la terminologie et
forment par conséquent la base de la présente Norme internationale. Les objets sont perçus ou conçus puis, par
une opération d'abstraction, sont ramenés à des concepts eux-mêmes représentés, dans une langue de spécialité,
par des désignations puis décrits dans des définitions. Un ensemble de désignations appartenant à une langue de
spécialité constitue la terminologie d'un domaine spécifique.
0.2 Conventions et système de notation
Dans la présente Norme internationale et pour la langue française, «terminologie» utilisé seul au singulier avec
l'article défini désigne la discipline alors que «terminologie» utilisé au pluriel ou précédé d'un article renvoie à
l'ensemble des désignations d'un domaine particulier, tel que la terminologie de la chimie.
Pour maintenir une certaine cohérence lorsqu'il est fait référence aux objets, aux concepts, aux définitions et aux
désignations, les conventions de formulations suivantes ont été adoptées dans la présente Norme internationale:
vi © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

� les objets
sont perçus ou conçus;
sont isolés par abstraction ou conceptualisés;
� les concepts
correspondent à un ensemble d'objets;
sont représentés ou exprimés dans une langue par des désignations ou par des définitions;
sont organisés en systèmes de concepts;
� les désignations (termes, appellations ou symboles)
désignent ou représentent un concept ou y renvoient;
sont attribuées à un concept;
� les définitions
définissent ou décrivent le concept.
Plus un système de concepts est complexe, plus il est nécessaire de clarifier les relations existant entre les
concepts en les structurant sous une forme logique ou graphique. Les relations entre concepts peuvent être
représentées sous la forme d'une liste. La représentation logique utilisée dans la présente Norme internationale est
une liste systématique avec alinéas numérotés et retraits comme dans l'exemple suivant:
Les représentations graphiques figurant dans la présente Norme internationale sont les représentations types les
plus courantes.
Les représentations en arborescence correspondent aux
relations génériques
Les représentations en râteau correspondent aux
relations partitives
Les représentations par des flèches correspondent aux
relations associatives
Le système de notation utilisé tout au long de la présente Norme internationale est le suivant:
� lestermesdéfinis dans l'ISO 1087-1 sont en italiques;
� les concepts sont entre guillemets;
� les désignations (termes, appellations ou symboles) sont en caractères gras;
� les caractères sont soulignés;
� les exemples figurent dans des encadrés.
Il convient de noter que les exemples figurant dans la version française de la présente Norme internationale ont été
choisis et simplifiés à des fins d'illustration. Lors de la traduction en d'autres langues, il peut être nécessaire de
choisir d'autres exemples pour illustrer le point en question.
Il convient de noter également que les exemples illustrant la formation des termes et figurant dans l’annexe
informative A sont propres au français pour la version française et à l’anglais pour la version anglaise. Par
conséquent, il convient de ne pas traduire l’annexe A mais de l’adapter aux besoins de la langue correspondante.
viii © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

NORME INTERNATIONALE ISO 704:2000(F)
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
1 Domaine d'application
La présente Norme internationale établit et harmonise les principes fondamentaux et les méthodes pour préparer
et compiler des terminologies, qu’il s’agisse d’activitésmenées dans le cadre de la normalisation ou non.
La présente Norme internationale décrit les liens existant entre les objets, les concepts, et leurs représentations
par des terminologies. Elle fixe également des principes généraux régissant la formation des désignations et la
formulation des définitions. Pour une compréhension complète et approfondie de ces principes, des connaissances
de fond de la terminologie sont nécessaires. Il s'agit de principes de nature générale et la présente Norme
internationale s’applique aux travaux terminologiques effectués dans des domaines scientifiques, technologiques,
industriels, administratifs, ainsi que dans les autres domaines de la connaissance.
La présente Norme internationale ne décrit pas les méthodes pour la présentation des Normes internationales de
terminologie, celles-ci étant traitées dans l'ISO 10241.
2Références normatives
Les documents normatifs suivants contiennent des dispositions qui, par suite de la référence qui y est faite,
constituent des dispositions valables pour la présente Norme internationale. Pour les références datées, les
amendements ultérieurs ou les révisions de ces publications ne s’appliquent pas. Toutefois, les parties prenantes
aux accords fondés sur la présente Norme internationale sont invitées à rechercher la possibilité d'appliquer les
éditions les plus récentes des documents normatifs indiqués ci-après. Pour les références non datées, la dernière
édition du document normatif en référence s’applique. Les membres de l'ISO et de la CEI possèdent le registre des
Normes internationales en vigueur.
ISO 9:1995, Information et documentation —Translittération des caractères cyrilliques en caractères latins —
Langues slaves et non slaves.
ISO 233:1984, Documentation —Translittération des caractèresarabesencaractères latins.
ISO 233-2:1993, Information et documentation — Translittération des caractèresarabesen caractères latins —
Partie 2: Langue arabe — Translittération simplifiée.
ISO 233-3:1999, Information et documentation — Translittération des caractères arabes en caractères latins —
Partie 3: Persan — Translittération simplifiée.
ISO 259:1984, Documentation — Translittération des caractères hébraïques en caractères latins.
ISO 259-2:1994, Information et documentation — Translittération des caractères hébreux en caractères latins —
Partie 2: Translittération simplifiée.
ISO 843:1997, Information et documentation — Conversion des caractères grecs en caractères latins.
ISO 860:1996, Travaux terminologiques — Harmonisation des notions et des termes.
1)
ISO 1087-1:— , Travaux terminologiques — Vocabulaire — Partie 1: Théorie et application.
ISO 3602:1989, Documentation — Romanisation du japonais (écriture en kana).
ISO 7098:1991, Information et documentation — Romanisation du chinois.
ISO 10241:1992, Normes terminologiques internationales—Élaboration et présentation.
3 Termes et définitions
Pour les besoins de la présente Norme internationale, les termes et définitions donnés dans l'ISO 1087-1
s'appliquent. La terminologie définie dans l'ISO 1087-1 est indiquée en italiques dans la présente Norme
internationale. Il convient de noter que les termes qui ne sont pas indiqués en italiques, mais qui figurent parmi les
termes définis dans l’ISO 1087-1, sont employésdansleursens général.
4Objets
Dans le cadre de la présente Norme internationale, un objet est tout ce qui se perçoitouseconçoit. Certains
objets, tels qu'une machine, un diamant ou une rivière, doivent être considérés comme concrets; d'autres objets
doivent être considérés comme immatériels ou abstraits, tels que chaque manifestation d'un plan financier, la
gravité, la fluidité ou un rapport de conversion; enfin d'autres doivent être considérés comme purement imaginés,
par exemple une licorne, une pierre philosophale ou un personnage de la littérature. Lors de la production d’une
terminologie, les discussions philosophiques sur le fait qu'un objet a ou non une réalité,qui n’appartiennent pas au
domaine d’application de la présente Norme internationale, doivent être évitées. Les objets sont supposés exister
et on doit se concentrer sur la manière de traiter les objets à des fins de communication.
5 Concepts
5.1 Nature des concepts en terminologie
Pour communiquer, on ne distingue pas et on ne nomme pas chaque objet individuel du monde. Mais, par
l’observation et au moyen d'un processus d’abstraction appelé conceptualisation, on regroupe les objets sous une
même catégorie de constructions mentales ou d'unitésdepensée appelées concepts, eux-mêmes expriméssous
différentes formes dans la communication (objet� concept� communication). La présente Norme internationale
ne traite pas de tous les concepts représentés par la langue, mais uniquement de ceux représentés à l’aide de
terminologies.En terminologie, les concepts sont considérés comme des représentations mentales d’objets dans
un contexte ou un domaine spécialisé.
Ne pas confondre les concepts avec les objets abstraits ou imaginés(c’est-à-dire: les objets concrets, abstraits ou
imaginésd’un contexte donné sont observés et conceptualisés par une opération mentale, puis une désignation
est attribuéeau concept plutôt qu'aux objets eux-mêmes). Dans la présente Norme internationale, le lien entre un
objet et sa désignation ou sa définition s'effectue par l’intermédiaire du concept,c'est-à-direunniveau supérieur
d'abstraction.
La production d'une terminologie nécessite la compréhension de la conceptualisation sous-jacente à la
connaissance humaine d'un domaine donné. Étant donné qu'une terminologie traite toujours d'une langue de
spécialité dans un domaine particulier de connaissance, le concept ne doit pas être considéré seulement comme
une unité de pensée, mais aussi comme une unité de connaissance.
Les concepts situés en contexte dans une langue de spécialité d’un domaine peuvent s’exprimer par les différentes
formes de la communication humaine en fonction du système utilisé. Dans les langues naturelles, les concepts
peuvent prendre la forme de termes,d’appellations,de définitions ou d’autres formes linguistiques; dans les
1) À publier.
2 © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

langues artificielles, ils peuvent prendre la forme de codes ou de formules, alors que sous forme graphique, ils
peuvent prendre la forme d’icônes, d’images, de schémas ou d’autres représentations graphiques. Les concepts
peuvent également être exprimés par le corps humain comme dans la langue des signes ou sous forme
d'expressions du visage ou de mouvements du corps. La présente Norme internationale ne traite pas de
l'expression des concepts par des signes ou au moyen du corps.
5.2 Concept unique et concept général
Lorsqu'un concept correspond à un seul objet, il est appelé concept unique et est exprimé dans les langues de
spécialité par une appellation (par exemple: Nations Unies, l’internet, le Web) ou par un symbole (par exemple:
RubandeMöbius; Afrique; Statue de la Liberté). Lorsque le concept correspond à deux objets
ou plus, il est appelé concept général et, dans les langues de spécialité,sa désignation prend la forme d'un terme
(par exemple disquette, liquidité, fonds de placement ouvert, etc.) ou d'un symbole (�,W,$).
5.3 Caractères
5.3.1 Nature des caractères
La formation des concepts joue un rôle pivot dans l’organisation de la connaissance humaine parce qu'elle fournit
le moyen pour identifier les objets et pour les regrouper en unités signifiantes dans un domaine spécifique. Les
objets perçus comme partageant les mêmes propriétés sont rassemblésenunités. Dès qu'une branche de la
connaissance humaine considère des objets similaires, ou même un objet unique, comme une unité de pensée
signifiante, les propriétésd’un objet ou communes à un ensemble d’objets sont isolées par abstraction sous la
forme de caractères qui sont combinés pour constituer un ensemble conduisant à la formation d’un concept.Les
caractères sont constamment combinés afin de former des concepts de façon différente selon la culture, l'école de
penséeoules domaines. La combinaison d’ensembles uniques de caractères est représentée dans une langue de
spécialité par une désignation (c'est-à-dire un terme,une appellation ou un symbole). Étant donné qu’il n’est pas
attribué une désignation à chaque objet individuel, une analyse terminologique ne peut commencer que si l’objet
spécifique en question correspond à un concept lui-même représenté par une désignation ou une définition.Par
conséquent, la méthodologie utilisée pour l’analyse de terminologies nécessite d'identifier le contexte ou le
domaine en question et les propriétés assignées aux objets dans le domaine, et d'isoler certaines de ces propriétés
par abstraction pour obtenir des caractères qui sont ensuite combinés pour former un concept.Il peut être utile de
commencer l’analyse par les concepts qui correspondent à des objets concrets car il est plus facile d’en isoler par
abstraction les caractères étant donné qu’il est possible d’observer ou d’examiner physiquement les propriétés
desdits objets.
L’analyse terminologique doit commencer avec les objets en question et le domaine mettant en contexte les objets
en question. Les propriétés doivent être attribuées à des objets uniquement.
EXEMPLE 1
L’objet spécifique désigné par la représentation visuelle ci-dessous possède les propriétésspécifiques suivantes:
— il est fait d’un long et mince bâton de graphite;
— le bâton de graphite est enrobé d’une gaine en bois;
— la gaine est jaune;
— une extrémité est munie d’une gomme;
— le graphite et la gaine sont taillés en pointe à l’autre extrémité;
— il est utilisé pour écrireoufaire destraits.
Si l’objet de l’exemple 1 a pour contexte la papeterie, il est reconnu que cet objet spécifique appartient à la
catégorie des objets conceptualisés sous la forme «crayon noir».L'opération de conceptualisation permet d'isoler
par abstraction, comme caractères, les propriétés des objets constituant l'ensemble et de convertir celles-ci en
généralisations qui s'appliquent à l'ensemble complet par opposition à l'objet individuel, comme illustré par
l'exemple 2.
Comme pour les propriétés des objets,les caractères sont regroupésen types de caractère, tels que la couleur, la
composition, la fonction, l'utilisation, l'origine, la forme, l'emplacement, le mouvement, etc. Pour obtenir une liste
exhaustive, il est recommandé d'identifier les propriétés des nombreux objets correspondant au concept analysé
puis d’en isoler par abstraction les caractères. Pour des raisons pratiques, il est recommandé de commencer par
un ou plusieurs objets types. L'identification des caractères nécessite une connaissance du domaine auquel
appartient le concept en question et requiert souvent des travaux de recherche. Les terminologues expérimentés
pour lesquels le concept étudié est clair et dépourvu d’ambiguïté peuvent passer directement à l’identification des
caractères.
Une analyse préliminaire du concept «crayon noir» est illustrée par l'exemple 2.
EXEMPLE 2
Objet (représentation visuelle): Concept: Désignation (terme):
isolé par abstraction à partir Crayon noir
de l’ensemble de tous les
crayons noirs
Catégorie Propriété Caractère
Niveau d’abstraction Objet concret Concret
Composition Fait d’un long et mince bâton Partie centrale en graphite
de graphite
Composition Une gaine en bois enrobe le graphite Partie centrale en graphite enveloppéed’une gaine
de bois
Couleur La gaine est jaune La gaine peut être colorée
Composition Une gomme est montée à une extrémité Une extrémité peut être munie d’une gomme
Forme L’autre extrémité est taillée en pointe Une extrémité peut être tailléeenpointe
Emploi Le graphite et la gaine sont taillés Le graphite et la gaine doivent être taillés pour l’emploi
pour l’emploi
Substance Le graphite sert de substance Le graphite sert de substance pour écrire
pour écrire
Fonction Sert pour écrire ou faire des traits Sert pour écrire ou faire des traits
Les caractères doivent servir pour l'analyse des concepts,lamodélisation des systèmes de concepts,la
formulation des définitions et, dans certains cas, pour la formation des désignations.
5.3.2 Compréhension et extension
L'ensemble de caractères qui constituent une unité formant le concept, est appelé compréhension.Les objets
considérés comme un ensemble et conceptualisés sous la forme d'un concept correspondent à l'extension.La
compréhension et l'extension sont interdépendantes. Ainsi, les caractères constituant la compréhension du
«crayon noir» en déterminent l'extension,c'est-à-dire les objets qualifiésdecrayons noirset viceversa.
4 © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

5.3.3 Caractères essentiels et caractères non essentiels
Tous les caractères ne sont pas d'importance égale. Dans la pratique, les caractères essentiels constituant la
compréhension doivent représenter le noyau de l'analyse et peuvent différer en fonction des domaines. Les
caractères sont considérés comme essentiels s'ils sont indispensables pour comprendre le concept dans un
domaine de connaissance; l'absence d'un caractère essentiel modifie fondamentalement le concept. L'absence
d'un caractère essentiel durant l'analyse conduit à une compréhension médiocre, voire erronéedu concept.Dans
l'exemple du «crayon noir»,si le caractère partie centrale en graphite enveloppée par une gaine en bois était
supprimé,le concept serait radicalement différent. Nous aurions un concept différent correspondant à un ensemble
différent d’objets. Par conséquent, il s'agit d'un caractère essentiel. En revanche, si le caractère une extrémité peut
être tailléeen pointe était supprimé,le concept ne serait pas modifié. Bien qu'un crayon noir doive être taillé pour
écrire, il est toujours qualifié de crayon noir lorsqu'il n'est pas taillé.Ilnes'agitdonc pas d'un caractère essentiel
pour comprendre le concept de «crayon noir».Les caractères essentiels d'un concept,comme «crayon noir»,
doivent être identifiés. Il n’est pas toujours nécessaire de classer les caractères de façon explicite comme dans
l’exemple 3, mais seulement dans les cas où le concept en question présente un degréélevé de complexité.
EXEMPLE 3
Niveau d’abstraction 1 Objet concret Essentiel
Composition 2. Partie centrale en graphite Essentiel
Composition 3. Partie centrale en graphite enveloppée d'une gaine de bois Essentiel
Couleur 4. La gaine peut être en couleur Non essentiel
Composition 5. Une extrémité peut être munie d'une gomme Non essentiel
Forme 6. Une extrémité peut être taillée en pointe Non essentiel
Emploi 7. Doit être taillé pour l’emploi Essentiel
Substance 8. Le graphite sert de substance pour écrire Essentiel
Fonction 9. Sert pour écrire ou faire des traits Essentiel
Il est à noter qu’une même propriété correspondant à un objet donné peut être isolée par abstraction comme
caractère essentiel d’un concept dans un domaine mais peut représenter un caractère non essentiel dans un autre.
5.3.4 Caractères distinctifs
L'analyse terminologique ne s'arrête pas à la détermination des caractères essentiels et des caractères non
essentiels qui constituent la compréhension d'un concept. Chaque caractère essentiel d'un concept étudié doit être
analysé par rapport aux concepts associésdu système de concepts. Les caractères communs ou partagés
indiquent des similitudes entre les concepts;les caractères distinctifs révèlent les différences qui distinguent un
concept (voir exemples 7 et 8). Un caractère distinctif est un caractère essentiel qui permet de délimiter un concept
par rapport à un autre. Cependant, les termes «distinctif» et «commun» sont relatifs. Le même caractère essentiel
peut être distinctif par rapport à un concept et commun par rapport à un autre concept lié.C’est en examinant les
similitudes et les différences entre les concepts qu’on obtient l’ensemble unique des caractères qui constituent un
concept donné. Cette combinaison unique de caractères situe le concept dans un réseau de concepts associés
présentant des caractères similaires ou différents. Les relations entre les concepts déterminent la structure de base
du système de concepts. Une bonne compréhension des caractères servant àétablir un système de concepts
simplifie la rédaction de la définition d'un concept.
5.4 Relations entre concepts
5.4.1 Types de relations entre concepts
Les concepts n'existent pas en tant qu'unités de penséeisolées, mais sont toujours en relation les uns par rapport
aux autres. Que l’on en ait conscience ou non, on crée et on affine constamment des relations entre concepts par
le biais des processus mentaux.
Lors de l'agencement des concepts en un système de concepts, il est important de garder présent à l'esprit le
domaine de connaissance d'où provient le concept et de considérer les attentes et les objectifs des utilisateurs
visés. Le domaine doit servir de cadre à l'intérieur duquel est établi le champ conceptuel,c'est-à-dire l'ensemble
non structuré de concepts connexes.
EXEMPLE 4
Si notre tâche était d’élaborer et de définir la terminologie des instruments d’écriture pour l’industrie de la papeterie, notre
exemple du «crayon noir» formerait partie du champ conceptuel traitant des crayons comme le conceptualisent les
spécialistes de ce secteur. Les crayons sortant du champ de la papeterie, comme les crayons à maquillage ou les crayons
astringents en seraient exclus.
Pour modéliser un système de concepts,les concepts du champ conceptuel correspondant doivent être examinés
et comparés. Pour les besoins de la présente Norme internationale, les relations les plus fréquemment utilisées
pour développer des systèmes de concepts sont les suivantes:
� relations hiérarchiques;
� relations génériques;
� relations partitives;
� relations associatives.
5.4.2 Relations hiérarchiques
5.4.2.1 Types de relations hiérarchiques
Dans une relation hiérarchique,les concepts sont organisés en niveaux dans lesquels le concept superordonné se
subdivise en au moins un concept subordonné. Les concepts subordonnés de même niveau et présentant les
mêmes critères de subdivision sont appelés concepts coordonnés. Les concepts coordonnés répondant au même
critère de subdivision d’un concept superordonné constituent une dimension. Un concept superordonné peut avoir
plusieurs dimensions, dans ce cas le système de concepts est qualifié de multidimensionnel. Les concepts sont
superordonnés, subordonnés ou coordonnés, non pas de façon indépendante, mais toujours les uns par rapport
aux autres dans une hiérarchie.
Dans la présente Norme internationale, deux types de relations hiérarchiques sont prises en compte:
� relations génériques;
� relations partitives.
5.4.2.2 Relations génériques
Une relation générique existe entre deux concepts lorsque la compréhension du concept subordonné inclut la
compréhension du concept superordonné et au moins un caractère distinctif supplémentaire. Le concept
superordonné d'une relation générique est appelé concept générique et le concept subordonné est appelé concept
spécifique.
Dans une relation générique, il existe un rapport inverse entre la compréhension d'un concept et son extension.
Par conséquent, si la compréhension d'un concept est restreinte, son extension sera relativement plus large et
inversement, si la compréhension est large, l'extension sera relativement plus restreinte.
6 © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

EXEMPLE 5
Dans le schéma conceptuel ci-dessous, «crayon» est un concept spécifique par rapport au concept générique de «instrument
d'écriture».Dela même manière, les concepts «crayon noir» et «porte-mine» sont chacun des concepts spécifiques par
rapport au concept générique «crayon».Chacun des concepts coordonnés «crayon noir» et «porte-mine» aune relation
générique avec le concept générique «crayon».Le critère utilisé pour augmenter la spécificité du concept est la nature de
l’enveloppe extérieure et la mine de graphite.
La comparaison des caractères essentiels d'un concept et des concepts connexes (par exemple concepts
génériques, concepts coordonnés et concepts spécifiques) peut nécessiter de préciser ou d'affiner sa
compréhension.
EXEMPLE 6
Comparaison des caractères essentiels des «crayons noirs » et des concepts connexes de l’exemple 5
Niveau d’abstraction
1. Objet concret COMMUN au concept générique «instrument d'écriture»,
au concept générique «crayon» et au concept coordonné
«porte-mine»
Composition 2. La partie centrale en graphite est fixe DISTINCTIF par rapport à tous les concepts connexes
Composition DISTINCTIF par rapport à tous les concepts connexes
3. Gaine en bois
Emploi 4. L’utilisation implique d’ôter la gaine DISTINCTIF par rapport à tous les concepts connexes
(c’est-à-dire de tailler le crayon)
Fonction 5. Utilisé pour écrire ou faire des traits COMMUN au concept générique «instrument d'écriture»,
au concept générique «crayon» et au concept coordonné
«porte-mine»
Afin de modéliser un système de concepts, on doit se concentrer sur les caractères essentiels et les caractères
distinctifs.
EXEMPLE 7
a
«objet concret» fait partie de la compréhension du concept superordonné supérieur mais est indiquée ici pour rappeler qu’il s’agit
d'objets concrets.
Le «crayon noir » est simplement un type particulier de «crayon» qui est, lui-même, un type particulier d’«instrument
d'écriture». Puisque tous les crayons noirs sont des types de crayon, la compréhension (ensemble des caractères)du
concept générique «crayon» est incluse dans la compréhension du concept spécifique «crayon noir»,d’où le caractère type
de crayon. En conséquence, la compréhension «crayon» est plus étroite que la compréhension «crayon noir» alors que
l’extension «crayon» (nombre d’objets) est plus large.
Une série de concepts présentant des relations génériques constitue une suite verticale de concepts, alors qu'un
groupe de concepts coordonnés,c'est-à-dire de concepts qui se trouvent au même niveau d'abstraction que le
système de concepts, forme une suite horizontale de concepts.
Dans une relation générique, la subdivision d'un concept en concepts subordonnés peut se faire de plusieurs
façons en fonction des critères ou du type de caractère retenus. Lorsque plusieurs critères sont utiliséspourla
construction d'un système génériquedeconcepts,cesystème doit être qualifié de multidimensionnel. Seuls les
concepts subordonnés de même niveau et ayant la même dimension sont appelés concepts coordonnés.Dans un
système générique de concepts, un nœud peut ne pas avoir de désignation, ou peut avoir une désignation dans
une langue mais pas dans une autre.
8 © ISO 2000 – Tous droits réservés

EXEMPLE 8
Les concepts «crayon noir» et «porte-mine» sont des concepts coordonnés car ils partagent la même dimension; «crayon
pour le bureau» et «crayon pour le golf» constituent une autre paire de concepts coordonnés.
Le schéma conceptuel le plus couramment utilisé pour illustrer des relations génériques dans un système de
concepts est le schéma en forme d'arbre comme dans l'exemple 8 ci-dessus, ou la liste de conceptsenalinéas
avec retraits comme dans l'exemple 9 ci-dessous.
EXEMPLE 9
1 instrument d'écriture
1.1 marqueur
1.2 crayon
1.2.1
1.2.1.1 crayon noir
1.2.1.2 porte-mine
1.2.2
1.2.2.1 crayon pour le bureau
1.2.2.2 crayon pour le golf
1.3 stylo …
5.4.2.3 Relations partitives
On considère qu’il existe une relation partitive lorsque le concept superordonné représente un tout, et que les
concepts subordonnés représentent des parties de ce tout. Les parties s'assemblent pour former le tout. Le
concept superordonné d'une relation partitive est appelé concept intégrant, et le concept subordonné est appelé
concept partitif.Des concepts subordonnés de même niveau et partageant la même dimension sont également
appelés concepts coordonnés.
Les relations partitives,comme les relations génériques, peuvent être exprimées par des suites verticales et
horizontales.
Les parties constitutives d'un tout peuvent être de nature similaire (par exemple un atome d'une molécule
d'oxygène) ou peuvent être trèsdifférentes. Une ou plusieurs parties constitutives peuvent être obligatoires
(c'est-à-dire essentielles) ou facultatives (c'est-à-dire non essentielles). Certaines parties en plus d'être essentielles
sont d
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