E04.14 - Quantitative Metallography

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 These test methods cover procedures for determining the mean grain size, and the distribution of grain intercept lengths or grain areas, for polycrystalline metals and nonmetallic materials with equiaxed or deformed grain shapes, with uniform or duplex grain size distributions, and for single phase or multiphase grain structures.  
5.2 The measurements are performed using semiautomatic digitizing tablet image analyzers or automatic image analyzers. These devices relieve much of the tedium associated with manual measurements, thus permitting collection of a larger amount of data and more extensive sampling which will produce better statistical definition of the grain size than by manual methods.  
5.3 The precision and relative accuracy of the test results depend on the representativeness of the specimen or specimens, quality of specimen preparation, clarity of the grain boundaries (etch technique and etchant used), the number of grains measured or the measurement area, errors in detecting grain boundaries or grain interiors, errors due to detecting other features (carbides, inclusions, twin boundaries, and so forth), the representativeness of the fields measured, and programming errors.  
5.4 Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, to compare different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods are used to determine grain size from measurements of grain intercept lengths, intercept counts, intersection counts, grain boundary length, and grain areas.  
1.2 These measurements are made with a semiautomatic digitizing tablet or by automatic image analysis using an image of the grain structure produced by a microscope.  
1.3 These test methods are applicable to any type of grain structure or grain size distribution as long as the grain boundaries can be clearly delineated by etching and subsequent image processing, if necessary.  
1.4 These test methods are applicable to measurement of other grain-like microstructures, such as cell structures.  
1.5 This standard deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the materials tested.  
1.6 The sections appear in the following order:    
Section  
Section  
Scope  
1  
Referenced Documents  
2  
Terminology  
3  
Definitions  
3.1  
Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard  
3.2  
Symbols  
3.3  
Summary of Test Method  
4  
Significance and Use  
5  
Interferences  
6  
Apparatus  
7  
Sampling  
8  
Test Specimens  
9  
Specimen Preparation  
10  
Calibration  
11  
Procedure:  
Semiautomatic Digitizing Tablet  
12  
Intercept Lengths  
12.3  
Intercept and Intersection Counts  
12.4  
Grain Counts  
12.5  
Grain Areas  
12.6  
ALA Grain Size  
12.6.1  
Two-Phase Grain Structures  
12.7  
Procedure:  
Automatic Image Analysis  
13  
Grain Boundary Length  
13.5  
Intersection Counts  
13.6  
Mean Chord (Intercept) Length/Field  
13.7.2  
Individual Chord (Intercept) Lengths  
13.7.4  
Grain Counts  
13.8  
Mean Grain Area/Field  
13.9  
Individual Grain Areas  
13.9.4  
ALA Grain Size  
13.9.8  
Two-Phase Grain Structures  
13.10  
Calculation of Results  
14  
Test Report  
15  
Precision and Bias  
16  
Grain Size of Non-Equiaxed Grain Structure Specimens  
Annex A1  
Examples of Proper and Improper Grain Boundary Delineation  
Annex A2  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental pra...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. The number of particles analyzed shall be indicated in the final analysis report (see 9.6).
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is used to assess the indigenous inclusions or second-phase constituents of metals using basic stereological procedures performed by automatic image analyzers.  
5.2 This practice is not suitable for assessing the exogenous inclusions in steels and other metals. Because of the sporadic, unpredictable nature of the distribution of exogenous inclusions, other methods involving complete inspection, for example, ultrasonics, must be used to locate their presence. The exact nature of the exogenous material can then be determined by sectioning into the suspect region followed by serial, step-wise grinding to expose the exogenous matter for identification and individual measurement. Direct size measurement rather than application of stereological methods is employed.  
5.3 Because the characteristics of the indigenous inclusion population vary within a given lot of material due to the influence of compositional fluctuations, solidification conditions and processing, the lot must be sampled statistically to assess its inclusion content. The largest lot sampled is the heat lot but smaller lots, for example, the product of an ingot, within the heat may be sampled as a separate lot. The sampling of a given lot must be adequate for the lot size and characteristics.  
5.4 The practice is suitable for assessment of the indigenous inclusions in any steel (or other metal) product regardless of its size or shape as long as enough different fields can be measured to obtain reasonable statistical confidence in the data. Because the specifics of the manufacture of the product do influence the morphological characteristics of the inclusions, the report should state the relevant manufacturing details, that is, data regarding the deformation history of the product.  
5.5 To compare the inclusion measurement results from different lots of the same or similar types of steels, or other metals, a standard sampling scheme should be adopted such as described in Test Method...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure for obtaining stereological measurements that describe basic characteristics of the morphology of indigenous inclusions in steels and other metals using automatic image analysis. The practice can be applied to provide such data for any discrete second phase.  
Note 1: Stereological measurement methods are used in this practice to assess the average characteristics of inclusions or other second-phase particles on a longitudinal plane-of-polish. This information, by itself, does not produce a three-dimensional description of these constituents in space as deformation processes cause rotation and alignment of these constituents in a preferred manner. Development of such information requires measurements on three orthogonal planes and is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.2 This practice specifically addresses the problem of producing stereological data when the features of the constituents to be measured make attainment of statistically reliable data difficult.  
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 TSCs are susceptible to the formation of porosity due to a lack of fusion between sprayed particles or the expansion of gases generated during the spraying process. The determination of area percent porosity is important in order to monitor the effect of variable spray parameters and the suitability of a coating for its intended purpose. Depending on application, some or none of this porosity may be tolerable.  
4.2 These test methods cover the determination of the area percentage porosity of TSCs. Method A is a manual, direct comparison method utilizing the seven standard images in Figs. 1-7 which depict typical distributions of porosity in TSCs. Method B is an automated technique requiring the use of a computerized image analyzer.
FIG. 1 — 0.5 % Porosity  
FIG. 2 — 1.0 % Porosity  
FIG. 3 — 2.0 % Porosity  
FIG. 4 — 5.0 % Porosity  
FIG. 5 — 8.0 % Porosity  
FIG. 6 — 10.0 % Porosity  
FIG. 7 — 15.0 % Porosity  
4.3 These methods quantify area percent porosity only on the basis of light reflectivity from a metallographically polished cross section. See Guide E1920 for recommended metallographic preparation procedures.  
4.4 The person using these test methods must be familiar with the visual features of TSCs and be able to determine differences between inherent porosity and oxides. The individual must be aware of the possible types of artifacts that may be created during sectioning and specimen preparation, for example, pullouts and smearing, so that results are reported only on properly prepared specimens. Examples of properly prepared specimens are shown in Figs. 8-10. If there are doubts as to the integrity of the specimen preparation it is suggested that other means be used to confirm microstructural features. This may include energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) or cryogenic fracture of the coating followed by analysis of the fractured surfaces with a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
FIG. 8 Ni/Al T...
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures to perform porosity ratings on metallographic specimens of thermal sprayed coatings (TSCs) prepared in accordance with Guide E1920 by direct comparison to standard images and via the use of automatic image analysis equipment.  
1.2 These test methods deal only with recommended measuring methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any measured value of porosity.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 These test methods are used to detect surface losses in carbon content due to heating at elevated temperatures, as in hot working or heat treatment.  
5.2 Results of such tests may be used to qualify material for shipment according to agreed upon guidelines between purchaser and manufacturer, for guidance as to machining allowances, or to assess the influence of processing upon decarburization tendency.  
5.3 Screening tests are simple, fast, low-cost tests designed to separate non-decarburized samples from those with appreciable decarburization. Based on the results of such tests, the other procedures may be utilized as applicable.  
5.4 Microscopical tests require a metallographically polished cross section to permit reasonably accurate determination of the depth and nature of the decarburization present. Several methods may be employed for estimation of the depth of decarburization. The statistical accuracy of each varies with the amount of effort expended.  
5.5 Microindentation hardness methods are employed on polished cross sections and are most suitable for hardened specimens with reasonably uniform microstructures. This procedure can be used to define the depth to a specific minimum hardness or the depth to a uniform hardness.  
5.6 Chemical analytical methods are limited to specimens with simple, uniform shapes and are based on analysis of incremental turnings or after milling at fixed increments.  
5.7 Microscopical tests are generally satisfactory for determining the suitability of material for intended use, specification acceptance, manufacturing control, development, or research.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for estimating the depth of decarburization of steels irrespective of the composition, matrix microstructure, or section shape. The following basic procedures may be used:  
1.1.1 Screening methods.  
1.1.2 Microscopical methods.  
1.1.3 Microindentation hardness methods.  
1.1.4 Chemical analysis methods.  
1.2 In case of a dispute, the rigorous quantitative or lineal analysis method (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) shall be the referee method. These methods can be employed with any cross-sectional shape. The chemical analytical methods generally reveal a greater depth of decarburization than the microscopical methods but are limited to certain simple shapes and by availability of equipment. These techniques are generally reserved for research studies. The microindentation hardness method is suitable for accurate measurements of hardened structures with relatively homogeneous microstructures.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).3  
5.2 This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.  
5.3 Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
5.4 A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.  
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is used to assess the nature and extent of banding or orientation of microstructures of metals and other materials where deformation and processing produce a banded or oriented condition.  
5.2 Banded or oriented microstructures can arise in single phase, two phase or multiphase metals and materials. The appearance of the orientation or banding is influenced by processing factors such as the solidification rate, the extent of segregation, the degree of hot or cold working, the nature of the deformation process used, the heat treatments, and so forth.  
5.3 Microstructural banding or orientation influence the uniformity of mechanical properties determined in various test directions with respect to the deformation direction.  
5.4 The stereological methods can be applied to measure the nature and extent of microstructural banding or orientation for any metal or material. The microindentation hardness test procedure should only be used to determine the difference in hardness in banded heat-treated metals, chiefly steels.  
5.5 Isolated segregation may also be present in an otherwise reasonably homogeneous microstructure. Stereological methods are not suitable for measuring individual features, instead use standard measurement procedures to define the feature size. The microindentation hardness method may be used for such structures.  
5.6 Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, for comparison of different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure to qualitatively describe the nature of banded or oriented microstructures based on the morphological appearance of the microstructure.  
1.2 This practice describes stereological procedures for quantitative measurement of the degree of microstructural banding or orientation.  
Note 1: Although stereological measurement methods are used to assess the degree of banding or alignment, the measurements are only made on planes parallel to the deformation direction (that is, a longitudinal plane) and the three-dimensional characteristics of the banding or alignment are not evaluated.  
1.3 This practice describes a microindentation hardness test procedure for assessing the magnitude of the hardness differences present in banded heat-treated steels. For fully martensitic carbon and alloy steels (0.10–0.65 %C), in the as-quenched condition, the carbon content of the matrix and segregate may be estimated from the microindentation hardness values.  
1.4 This practice does not cover chemical analytical methods for evaluating banded structures.  
1.5 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.  
1.6 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values, when listed, are in parentheses and may be approximate.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).3  
5.2 This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.  
5.3 Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
5.4 A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.  
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is used to assess the nature and extent of banding or orientation of microstructures of metals and other materials where deformation and processing produce a banded or oriented condition.  
5.2 Banded or oriented microstructures can arise in single phase, two phase or multiphase metals and materials. The appearance of the orientation or banding is influenced by processing factors such as the solidification rate, the extent of segregation, the degree of hot or cold working, the nature of the deformation process used, the heat treatments, and so forth.  
5.3 Microstructural banding or orientation influence the uniformity of mechanical properties determined in various test directions with respect to the deformation direction.  
5.4 The stereological methods can be applied to measure the nature and extent of microstructural banding or orientation for any metal or material. The microindentation hardness test procedure should only be used to determine the difference in hardness in banded heat-treated metals, chiefly steels.  
5.5 Isolated segregation may also be present in an otherwise reasonably homogeneous microstructure. Stereological methods are not suitable for measuring individual features, instead use standard measurement procedures to define the feature size. The microindentation hardness method may be used for such structures.  
5.6 Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, for comparison of different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure to qualitatively describe the nature of banded or oriented microstructures based on the morphological appearance of the microstructure.  
1.2 This practice describes stereological procedures for quantitative measurement of the degree of microstructural banding or orientation.  
Note 1: Although stereological measurement methods are used to assess the degree of banding or alignment, the measurements are only made on planes parallel to the deformation direction (that is, a longitudinal plane) and the three-dimensional characteristics of the banding or alignment are not evaluated.  
1.3 This practice describes a microindentation hardness test procedure for assessing the magnitude of the hardness differences present in banded heat-treated steels. For fully martensitic carbon and alloy steels (0.10–0.65 %C), in the as-quenched condition, the carbon content of the matrix and segregate may be estimated from the microindentation hardness values.  
1.4 This standard does not cover chemical analytical methods for evaluating banded structures.  
1.5 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.  
1.6 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values, when listed, are in parentheses and may be approximate.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is used to assess the indigenous inclusions or second-phase constituents of metals using basic stereological procedures performed by automatic image analyzers.  
5.2 This practice is not suitable for assessing the exogenous inclusions in steels and other metals. Because of the sporadic, unpredictable nature of the distribution of exogenous inclusions, other methods involving complete inspection, for example, ultrasonics, must be used to locate their presence. The exact nature of the exogenous material can then be determined by sectioning into the suspect region followed by serial, step-wise grinding to expose the exogenous matter for identification and individual measurement. Direct size measurement rather than application of stereological methods is employed.  
5.3 Because the characteristics of the indigenous inclusion population vary within a given lot of material due to the influence of compositional fluctuations, solidification conditions and processing, the lot must be sampled statistically to assess its inclusion content. The largest lot sampled is the heat lot but smaller lots, for example, the product of an ingot, within the heat may be sampled as a separate lot. The sampling of a given lot must be adequate for the lot size and characteristics.  
5.4 The practice is suitable for assessment of the indigenous inclusions in any steel (or other metal) product regardless of its size or shape as long as enough different fields can be measured to obtain reasonable statistical confidence in the data. Because the specifics of the manufacture of the product do influence the morphological characteristics of the inclusions, the report should state the relevant manufacturing details, that is, data regarding the deformation history of the product.  
5.5 To compare the inclusion measurement results from different lots of the same or similar types of steels, or other metals, a standard sampling scheme should be adopted such as described in Practice E4...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure for obtaining stereological measurements that describe basic characteristics of the morphology of indigenous inclusions in steels and other metals using automatic image analysis. The practice can be applied to provide such data for any discrete second phase.  
Note 1: Stereological measurement methods are used in this practice to assess the average characteristics of inclusions or other second-phase particles on a longitudinal plane-of-polish. This information, by itself, does not produce a three-dimensional description of these constituents in space as deformation processes cause rotation and alignment of these constituents in a preferred manner. Development of such information requires measurements on three orthogonal planes and is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.2 This practice specifically addresses the problem of producing stereological data when the features of the constituents to be measured make attainment of statistically reliable data difficult.  
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. The number of particles analyzed shall be indicated in the final analysis report (see 9.6).
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. The number of particles analyzed shall be indicated in the final analysis report (see 9.6).
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is used to assess the nature and extent of banding or orientation of microstructures of metals and other materials where deformation and processing produce a banded or oriented condition.  
5.2 Banded or oriented microstructures can arise in single phase, two phase or multiphase metals and materials. The appearance of the orientation or banding is influenced by processing factors such as the solidification rate, the extent of segregation, the degree of hot or cold working, the nature of the deformation process used, the heat treatments, and so forth.  
5.3 Microstructural banding or orientation influence the uniformity of mechanical properties determined in various test directions with respect to the deformation direction.  
5.4 The stereological methods can be applied to measure the nature and extent of microstructural banding or orientation for any metal or material. The microindentation hardness test procedure should only be used to determine the difference in hardness in banded heat-treated metals, chiefly steels.  
5.5 Isolated segregation may also be present in an otherwise reasonably homogeneous microstructure. Stereological methods are not suitable for measuring individual features, instead use standard measurement procedures to define the feature size. The microindentation hardness method may be used for such structures.  
5.6 Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, for comparison of different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure to qualitatively describe the nature of banded or oriented microstructures based on the morphological appearance of the microstructure.  
1.2 This practice describes stereological procedures for quantitative measurement of the degree of microstructural banding or orientation.  
Note 1: Although stereological measurement methods are used to assess the degree of banding or alignment, the measurements are only made on planes parallel to the deformation direction (that is, a longitudinal plane) and the three-dimensional characteristics of the banding or alignment are not evaluated.  
1.3 This practice describes a microindentation hardness test procedure for assessing the magnitude of the hardness differences present in banded heat-treated steels. For fully martensitic carbon and alloy steels (0.10–0.65 %C), in the as-quenched condition, the carbon content of the matrix and segregate may be estimated from the microindentation hardness values.  
1.4 This standard does not cover chemical analytical methods for evaluating banded structures.  
1.5 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.  
1.6 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values, when listed, are in parentheses and may be approximate.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 These test methods cover procedures for determining the mean grain size, and the distribution of grain intercept lengths or grain areas, for polycrystalline metals and nonmetallic materials with equiaxed or deformed grain shapes, with uniform or duplex grain size distributions, and for single phase or multiphase grain structures.  
5.2 The measurements are performed using semiautomatic digitizing tablet image analyzers or automatic image analyzers. These devices relieve much of the tedium associated with manual measurements, thus permitting collection of a larger amount of data and more extensive sampling which will produce better statistical definition of the grain size than by manual methods.  
5.3 The precision and relative accuracy of the test results depend on the representativeness of the specimen or specimens, quality of specimen preparation, clarity of the grain boundaries (etch technique and etchant used), the number of grains measured or the measurement area, errors in detecting grain boundaries or grain interiors, errors due to detecting other features (carbides, inclusions, twin boundaries, and so forth), the representativeness of the fields measured, and programming errors.  
5.4 Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, to compare different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods are used to determine grain size from measurements of grain intercept lengths, intercept counts, intersection counts, grain boundary length, and grain areas.  
1.2 These measurements are made with a semiautomatic digitizing tablet or by automatic image analysis using an image of the grain structure produced by a microscope.  
1.3 These test methods are applicable to any type of grain structure or grain size distribution as long as the grain boundaries can be clearly delineated by etching and subsequent image processing, if necessary.  
1.4 These test methods are applicable to measurement of other grain-like microstructures, such as cell structures.  
1.5 This standard deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the materials tested.  
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 The sections appear in the following order:    
Section  
Section  
Scope  
1  
Referenced Documents  
2  
Terminology  
3  
Definitions  
3.1  
Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard  
3.2  
Symbols  
3.3  
Summary of Test Method  
4  
Significance and Use  
5  
Interferences  
6  
Apparatus  
7  
Sampling  
8  
Test Specimens  
9  
Specimen Preparation  
10  
Calibration  
11  
Procedure:  
Semiautomatic Digitizing Tablet  
12  
Intercept Lengths  
12.3  
Intercept and Intersection Counts  
12.4  
Grain Counts  
12.5  
Grain Areas  
12.6  
ALA Grain Size  
12.6.1  
Two-Phase Grain Structures  
12.7  
Procedure:  
Automatic Image Analysis  
13  
Grain Boundary Length  
13.5  
Intersection Counts  
13.6  
Mean Chord (Intercept) Length/Field  
13.7.2  
Individual Chord (Intercept) Lengths  
13.7.4  
Grain Counts  
13.8  
Mean Grain Area/Field  
13.9  
Individual Grain Areas  
13.9.4  
ALA Grain Size  
13.9.8  
Two-Phase Grain Structures  
13.10  
Calculation of Results  
14  
Test Report  
15  
Precision and Bias  
16  
Grain Size of Non-Equiaxed Grain Structure Specimens  
Annex A1  
Examples...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. (See 5.6 for exceptions covering the minimum numbers of particles.)  
5.6 The only exception to the 500-particle minimum assessment requirement is for large castings with a smallest c...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 TSCs are susceptible to the formation of porosity due to a lack of fusion between sprayed particles or the expansion of gases generated during the spraying process. The determination of area percent porosity is important in order to monitor the effect of variable spray parameters and the suitability of a coating for its intended purpose. Depending on application, some or none of this porosity may be tolerable.  
4.2 These test methods cover the determination of the area percentage porosity of TSCs. Method A is a manual, direct comparison method utilizing the seven standard images in Figs. 1-7 which depict typical distributions of porosity in TSCs. Method B is an automated technique requiring the use of a computerized image analyzer.  
4.3 These methods quantify area percent porosity only on the basis of light reflectivity from a metallographically polished cross section. See Guide E1920 for recommended metallographic preparation procedures.  
4.4 The person using these test methods must be familiar with the visual features of TSCs and be able to determine differences between inherent porosity and oxides. The individual must be aware of the possible types of artifacts that may be created during sectioning and specimen preparation, for example, pullouts and smearing, so that results are reported only on properly prepared specimens. Examples of properly prepared specimens are shown in Figs. 8-10. If there are doubts as to the integrity of the specimen preparation it is suggested that other means be used to confirm microstructural features. This may include energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) or cryogenic fracture of the coating followed by analysis of the fractured surfaces with a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures to perform porosity ratings on metallographic specimens of thermal sprayed coatings (TSCs) prepared in accordance with Guide E1920 by direct comparison to standard images and via the use of automatic image analysis equipment.  
1.2 These test methods deal only with recommended measuring methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any measured value of porosity.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 These test methods are used to detect surface losses in carbon content due to heating at elevated temperatures, as in hot working or heat treatment.  
5.2 Results of such tests may be used to qualify material for shipment according to agreed upon guidelines between purchaser and manufacturer, for guidance as to machining allowances, or to assess the influence of processing upon decarburization tendency.  
5.3 Screening tests are simple, fast, low-cost tests designed to separate non-decarburized samples from those with appreciable decarburization. Based on the results of such tests, the other procedures may be utilized as applicable.  
5.4 Microscopical tests require a metallographically polished cross section to permit reasonably accurate determination of the depth and nature of the decarburization present. Several methods may be employed for estimation of the depth of decarburization. The statistical accuracy of each varies with the amount of effort expended.  
5.5 Microindentation hardness methods are employed on polished cross sections and are most suitable for hardened specimens with reasonably uniform microstructures. This procedure can be used to define the depth to a specific minimum hardness or the depth to a uniform hardness.  
5.6 Chemical analytical methods are limited to specimens with simple, uniform shapes and are based on analysis of incremental turnings or after milling at fixed increments.  
5.7 Microscopical tests are generally satisfactory for determining the suitability of material for intended use, specification acceptance, manufacturing control, development, or research.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for estimating the depth of decarburization of steels irrespective of the composition, matrix microstructure, or section shape. The following basic procedures may be used:  
1.1.1 Screening methods.  
1.1.2 Microscopical methods.  
1.1.3 Microindentation hardness methods.  
1.1.4 Chemical analysis methods.  
1.2 In case of a dispute, the rigorous quantitative or lineal analysis method (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) shall be the referee method. These methods can be employed with any cross-sectional shape. The chemical analytical methods generally reveal a greater depth of decarburization than the microscopical methods but are limited to certain simple shapes and by availability of equipment. These techniques are generally reserved for research studies. The microindentation hardness method is suitable for accurate measurements of hardened structures with relatively homogeneous microstructures.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. (See 5.6 for exceptions covering the minimum numbers of particles.)  
5.6 The only exception to the 500-particle minimum assessment requirement is for large castings with a smallest...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. (See 5.6 for exceptions covering the minimum numbers of particles.)  
5.6 The only exception to the 500-particle minimum assessment requirement is for large castings with a smallest...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
5.2 This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.  
5.3 This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.  
5.4 Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.  
5.5 A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. (See 5.6 for exceptions covering the minimum numbers of particles.)  
5.6 The only exception to the 500-particle minimum assessment requirement is for large castings with a smallest...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both  x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades  
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).  
This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.
Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).  
This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.
Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Qualitative measurement of “nodularity” and “nodule count” using visual estimations has been practiced for many years. These methods suffer from poor reproducibility and repeatability. The introduction of computer-aided image analysis enables metallographers to measure and count individual particles of interest in a microstructure with a high degree of precision. This greatly reduces measurement variations compared to visual estimation methods (see, for example, Test Method A247).  
This method defines a procedure for measuring the number of nodules and the quality of nodularity of spherulitic graphite in a cast iron microstructure. The specimen’s location in a casting or cast test specimen, and the orientation of the plane-of-polish, are governed by product standards. When a product standard is not defined, choose the test location randomly or at specific systematically chosen depths as needed. The plane-of-polish may be parallel or perpendicular to the solidification direction, or chosen at random, depending upon the needs of the study.
This test method may be used to determine variations within a given test specimen, within a given location in a casting, between different locations in a casting, or for the same location in different castings over time. Results from this test method may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer or can be used to monitor process quality or product variations.
Measurements are performed using a computer-controlled automatic image analysis system.
A minimum number of specimens and a minimum surface area to be evaluated may be defined by producer-purchaser agreement, provided at least 500 particles meeting the minimum size requirements are measured. (See 5.6 for exceptions covering the minimum numbers of particles.)  
The only exception to the 500-particle minimum assessment requirement is for large castings with a smallest cross-sectional dimension; f...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method is used to determine the percent nodularity and the nodule count per unit area (that is, number of nodules per mm2) using a light microscopical image of graphite in nodular cast iron. Images generated by other devices, such as a scanning electron microscope, are not specifically addressed, but can be utilized if the system is calibrated in both x and y directions.  
1.2 Measurement of secondary or temper carbon in other types of cast iron, for example, malleable cast iron or in graphitic tool steels, is not specifically included in this standard because of the different graphite shapes and sizes inherent to such grades
1.3 This standard deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the material tested.
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
These test methods cover procedures for determining the mean grain size, and the distribution of grain intercept lengths or grain areas, for polycrystalline metals and nonmetallic materials with equiaxed or deformed grain shapes, with uniform or duplex grain size distributions, and for single phase or multiphase grain structures.
The measurements are performed using semiautomatic digitizing tablet image analyzers or automatic image analyzers. These devices relieve much of the tedium associated with manual measurements, thus permitting collection of a larger amount of data and more extensive sampling which will produce better statistical definition of the grain size than by manual methods.  
The precision and relative accuracy of the test results depend on the representativeness of the specimen or specimens, quality of specimen preparation, clarity of the grain boundaries (etch technique and etchant used), the number of grains measured or the measurement area, errors in detecting grain boundaries or grain interiors, errors due to detecting other features (carbides, inclusions, twin boundaries, and so forth), the representativeness of the fields measured, and programming errors.
Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, to compare different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods are used to determine grain size from measurements of grain intercept lengths, intercept counts, intersection counts, grain boundary length, and grain areas.
1.2 These measurements are made with a semiautomatic digitizing tablet or by automatic image analysis using an image of the grain structure produced by a microscope.
1.3 These test methods are applicable to any type of grain structure or grain size distribution as long as the grain boundaries can be clearly delineated by etching and subsequent image processing, if necessary.  
1.4 These test methods are applicable to measurement of other grain-like microstructures, such as cell structures.
1.5 This standard deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the materials tested.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.7 The sections appear in the following order:

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).  
This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.
Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E 1245.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice is used to assess the indigenous inclusions or second-phase constituents of metals using basic stereological procedures performed by automatic image analyzers.
This practice is not suitable for assessing the exogenous inclusions in steels and other metals. Because of the sporadic, unpredictable nature of the distribution of exogenous inclusions, other methods involving complete inspection, for example, ultrasonics, must be used to locate their presence. The exact nature of the exogenous material can then be determined by sectioning into the suspect region followed by serial, step-wise grinding to expose the exogenous matter for identification and individual measurement. Direct size measurement rather than application of stereological methods is employed.
Because the characteristics of the indigenous inclusion population vary within a given lot of material due to the influence of compositional fluctuations, solidification conditions and processing, the lot must be sampled statistically to assess its inclusion content. The largest lot sampled is the heat lot but smaller lots, for example, the product of an ingot, within the heat may be sampled as a separate lot. The sampling of a given lot must be adequate for the lot size and characteristics.
The practice is suitable for assessment of the indigenous inclusions in any steel (or other metal) product regardless of its size or shape as long as enough different fields can be measured to obtain reasonable statistical confidence in the data. Because the specifics of the manufacture of the product do influence the morphological characteristics of the inclusions, the report should state the relevant manufacturing details, that is, data regarding the deformation history of the product.
To compare the inclusion measurement results from different lots of the same or similar types of steels, or other metals, a standard sampling scheme should be adopted such as described in Practice E 45.
The test measureme...
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure for obtaining stereological measurements that describe basic characteristics of the morphology of indigenous inclusions in steels and other metals using automatic image analysis. The practice can be applied to provide such data for any discrete second phase.
Note 1—Stereological measurement methods are used in this practice to assess the average characteristics of inclusions or other second-phase particles on a longitudinal plane-of-polish. This information, by itself, does not produce a three-dimensional description of these constituents in space as deformation processes cause rotation and alignment of these constituents in a preferred manner. Development of such information requires measurements on three orthogonal planes and is beyond the scope of this practice.  
1.2 This practice specifically addresses the problem of producing stereological data when the features of the constituents to be measured make attainment of statistically reliable data difficult.
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice is used to assess the nature and extent of banding or orientation of microstructures of metals and other materials where deformation and processing produce a banded or oriented condition.
Banded or oriented microstructures can arise in single phase, two phase or multiphase metals and materials. The appearance of the orientation or banding is influenced by processing factors such as the solidification rate, the extent of segregation, the degree of hot or cold working, the nature of the deformation process used, the heat treatments, and so forth.
Microstructural banding or orientation influence the uniformity of mechanical properties determined in various test directions with respect to the deformation direction.
The stereological methods can be applied to measure the nature and extent of microstructural banding or orientation for any metal or material. The microindentation hardness test procedure should only be used to determine the difference in hardness in banded heat-treated metals, chiefly steels.
Isolated segregation may also be present in an otherwise reasonably homogeneous microstructure. Stereological methods are not suitable for measuring individual features, instead use standard measurement procedures to define the feature size. The microindentation hardness method may be used for such structures.
Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, for comparison of different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure to qualitatively describe the nature of banded or oriented microstructures based on the morphological appearance of the microstructure.
1.2 This practice describes stereological procedures for quantitative measurement of the degree of microstructural banding or orientation.
Note 1— Although stereological measurement methods are used to assess the degree of banding or alignment, the measurements are only made on planes parallel to the deformation direction (that is, a longitudinal plane) and the three-dimensional characteristics of the banding or alignment are not evaluated.
1.3 This practice describes a microindentation hardness test procedure for assessing the magnitude of the hardness differences present in banded heat-treated steels. For fully martensitic carbon and alloy steels (0.10-0.65 %C), in the as-quenched condition, the carbon content of the matrix and segregate may be estimated from the microindentation hardness values.
1.4 This standard does not cover chemical analytical methods for evaluating banded structures.
1.5 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.6 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values, when listed, are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures to perform porosity ratings on metallographic specimens of thermal sprayed coatings (TSCs) prepared in accordance with Guide E 1920 by direct comparison to standard images and via the use of automatic image analysis equipment.
1.2 These test methods deal only with recommended measuring methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any measured value of porosity.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).3  
This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.
Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E 1245.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).3  
This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.
Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E 1245.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
These test methods are used to detect surface losses in carbon content due to heating at elevated temperatures, as in hot working or heat treatment.
Results of such tests may be used to qualify material for shipment according to agreed upon guidelines between purchaser and manufacturer, for guidance as to machining allowances, or to assess the influence of processing upon decarburization tendency.
Screening tests are simple, fast, low-cost tests designed to separate non-decarburized samples from those with appreciable decarburization. Based on the results of such tests, the other procedures may be utilized as applicable.
Microscopical tests require a metallographically pol-ished cross section to permit reasonably accurate determina-tion of the depth and nature of the decarburization present. Several methods may be employed for estimation of the depth of decarburization. The statistical accuracy of each varies with the amount of effort expended.
Microindentation hardness methods are employed on polished cross sections and are most suitable for hardened specimens with reasonably uniform microstructures. This procedure can be used to define the depth to a specific minimum hardness or the depth to a uniform hardness.
Chemical analytical methods are limited to specimens with simple, uniform shapes and are based on analysis of incremental turnings or after milling at fixed increments.
Microscopical tests are generally satisfactory for determining the suitability of material for intended use, specification acceptance, manufacturing control, development, or research.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for estimating the depth of decarburization of steels irrespective of the composition, matrix microstructure, or section shape. The following basic procedures may be used:
1.1.1 Screening methods.
1.1.2 Microscopical methods.
1.1.3 Microindentation hardness methods.
1.1.4 Chemical analysis methods.
1.2 In case of a dispute, the rigorous quantitative or lineal analysis method (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) shall be the referee method. These methods can be employed with any cross-sectional shape. The chemical analytical methods generally reveal a greater depth of decarburization than the microscopical methods but are limited to certain simple shapes and by availability of equipment. These techniques are generally reserved for research studies. The microindentation hardness method is suitable for accurate measurements of hardened structures with relatively homogeneous microstructures.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The inch-pound equivalents are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.4This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
These test methods cover procedures for determining the mean grain size, and the distribution of grain intercept lengths or grain areas, for polycrystalline metals and nonmetallic materials with equiaxed or deformed grain shapes, with uniform or duplex grain size distributions, and for single phase or multiphase grain structures.
The measurements are performed using semiautomatic digitizing tablet image analyzers or automatic image analyzers. These devices relieve much of the tedium associated with manual measurements, thus permitting collection of a larger amount of data and more extensive sampling which will produce better statistical definition of the grain size than by manual methods.  
The precision and relative accuracy of the test results depend on the representativeness of the specimen or specimens, quality of specimen preparation, clarity of the grain boundaries (etch technique and etchant used), the number of grains measured or the measurement area, errors in detecting grain boundaries or grain interiors, errors due to detecting other features (carbides, inclusions, twin boundaries, and so forth), the representativeness of the fields measured, and programming errors.
Results from these test methods may be used to qualify material for shipment in accordance with guidelines agreed upon between purchaser and manufacturer, to compare different manufacturing processes or process variations, or to provide data for structure-property-behavior studies.
SCOPE
1.1 These test methods are used to determine grain size from measurements of grain intercept lengths, intercept counts, intersection counts, grain boundary length, and grain areas.
1.2 These measurements are made with a semiautomatic digitizing tablet or by automatic image analysis using an image of the grain structure produced by a microscope.
1.3 These test methods are applicable to any type of grain structure or grain size distribution as long as the grain boundaries can be clearly delineated by etching and subsequent image processing, if necessary.
1.4 These test methods are applicable to measurement of other grain-like microstructures, such as cell structures.
1.5 This standard deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the materials tested.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.6 The sections appear in the following order:

SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure for obtaining stereological measurements that describe basic characteristics of the morphology of indigenous inclusions in steels and other metals using automatic image analysis. The practice can be applied to provide such data for any discrete second phase.
Note 1—Stereological measurement methods are used in this practice to assess the average characteristics of inclusions or other second-phase particles on a longitudinal plane-of-polish. This information, by itself, does not produce a three-dimensional description of these constituents in space as deformation processes cause rotation and alignment of these constituents in a preferred manner. Development of such information requires measurements on three orthogonal planes and is beyond the scope of this practice.
1.2 This practice specifically addresses the problem of producing stereological data when the features of the constituents to be measured make attainment of statistically reliable data difficult.
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.4 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are to be regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is based upon the stereological principle that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, when systematically placed over an image of a two-dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, after a representative number of placements on different fields, an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).3  
This test method has been described  (4) as being superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, and simplicity.
Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to any type of solid material from which adequate two-dimensional sections can be prepared and observed.  
A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is given in Annex A1.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.
1.3  This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the radial sectioning technique 2,3,4  for measurement of the thickness of thin surface layers, made by a wide variety of processes, on metals, alloys, carbides, and oxides.  
1.2 This test method is applicable to measurement of a wide variety of surface layer types where the interface between the layer and substrate is discernible by natural color or reflectivity differences or by means of color or reflectivity differences due to etching or staining.  
1.3 This test method does not pertain to layer thickness measurements made by analysis of compositional variations.  
1.4 This test method deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any coating method.  
1.5 The measurement values stated are in the metric system, as defined in Standard E380.  
1.6  This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  For specific precautionary statements, see Section 7.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures to perform porosity ratings on metallographic specimens of thermal sprayed coatings (TSCs) prepared in accordance with Guide E1920 by direct comparison to standard images and via the use of automatic image analysis equipment.
1.2 These test methods deal only with recommended measuring methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any measured value of porosity.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure to qualitatively describe the nature of banded or oriented microstructures based on the morphological appearance of the microstructure.
1.2 This practice describes stereological procedures for quantitative measurement of the degree of microstructural banding or orientation.
Note 1—Although stereological measurement methods are used to assess the degree of banding or alignment, the measurements are only made on planes parallel to the deformation direction (that is, a longitudinal plane) and the three-dimensional characteristics of the banding or alignment are not evaluated.
1.3 This practice describes a microindentation hardness test procedure for assessing the magnitude of the hardness differences present in banded heat-treated steels. For fully martensitic carbon and alloy steels (0.10-0.65 %C), in the as-quenched condition, the carbon content of the matrix and segregate may be estimated from the microindentation hardness values.
1.4 This standard does not cover chemical analytical methods for evaluating banded structures.
1.5 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.6 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values, when listed, are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.
1.3  This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures to perform porosity ratings on metallographic specimens of thermal sprayed coatings (TSCs) prepared in accordance with Guide E1920 by direct comparison to standard images and via the use of automatic image analysis equipment.
1.2 These test methods deal only with recommended measuring methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any measured value of porosity.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections through the microstructure by means of a point grid.
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245.
1.3  This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure to qualitatively describe the nature of banded or oriented microstructures based on the morphological appearance of the microstructure.
1.2 This practice describes stereological procedures for quantitative measurement of the degree of microstructural banding or orientation.
Note 1—Although stereological measurement methods are used to assess the degree of banding or alignment, the measurements are only made on planes parallel to the deformation direction (that is, a longitudinal plane) and the three-dimensional characteristics of the banding or alignment are not evaluated.
1.3 This practice describes a microindentation hardness test procedure for assessing the magnitude of the hardness differences present in banded heat-treated steels. For fully martensitic carbon and alloy steels (0.10-0.65 %C), in the as-quenched condition, the carbon content of the matrix and segregate may be estimated from the microindentation hardness values.
1.4 This standard does not cover chemical analytical methods for evaluating banded structures.
1.5 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.6 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values, when listed, are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for estimating the depth of decarburization of steels irrespective of the composition, matrix microstructure, or section shape. The following basic procedures may be used:  
1.1.1 Screening methods.  
1.1.2 Microscopical methods.  
1.1.3 Microindentation hardness methods.  
1.1.4 Chemical analysis methods.  
1.2 In case of a dispute, the rigorous quantitative or lineal analysis method (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) shall be the referee method. These methods can be employed with any cross-sectional shape. The chemical analytical methods generally reveal a greater depth of decarburization than the microscopical methods but are limited to certain simple shapes and by availability of equipment. These techniques are generally reserved for research studies. The microindentation hardness method is suitable for accurate measurements of hardened structures with relatively homogeneous microstructures.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The inch-pound equivalents are in parentheses and may be approximate.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for estimating the depth of decarburization of steels irrespective of the composition, matrix microstructure, or section shape. The following basic procedures may be used:  
1.1.1 Screening methods.  
1.1.2 Microscopical methods.  
1.1.3 Microindentation hardness methods.  
1.1.4 Chemical analysis methods.  
1.2 In case of a dispute, the rigorous quantitative or lineal analysis method (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) shall be the referee method. These methods can be employed with any cross-sectional shape. The chemical analytical methods generally reveal a greater depth of decarburization than the microscopical methods but are limited to certain simple shapes and by availability of equipment. These techniques are generally reserved for research studies. The microindentation hardness method is suitable for accurate measurements of hardened structures with relatively homogeneous microstructures.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The inch-pound equivalents are in parentheses and may be approximate.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for estimating the depth of decarburization of steels irrespective of the composition, matrix microstructure, or section shape. The following basic procedures may be used:  
1.1.1 Screening methods.  
1.1.2 Microscopical methods.  
1.1.3 Microindentation hardness methods.  
1.1.4 Chemical analysis methods.  
1.2 In case of a dispute, the rigorous quantitative or lineal analysis method (see 7.3.5 and 7.3.6) shall be the referee method. These methods can be employed with any cross-sectional shape. The chemical analytical methods generally reveal a greater depth of decarburization than the microscopical methods but are limited to certain simple shapes and by availability of equipment. These techniques are generally reserved for research studies. The microindentation hardness method is suitable for accurate measurements of hardened structures with relatively homogeneous microstructures.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The inch-pound equivalents are in parentheses and may be approximate.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure for obtaining stereological measurements that describe basic characteristics of the morphology of indigenous inclusions in steels and other metals using automatic image analysis. The practice can be applied to provide such data for any discrete second phase.
Note 1--Stereological measurement methods are used in this practice to assess the average characteristics of inclusions or other second-phase particles on a longitudinal plane-of-polish. This information, by itself, does not produce a three-dimensional description of these constituents in space as deformation processes cause rotation and alignment of these constituents in a preferred manner. Development of such information requires measurements on three orthogonal planes and is beyond the scope of this practice.
1.2 This practice specifically addresses the problem of producing stereological data when the features of the constituents to be measured make attainment of statistically reliable data difficult.
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.4 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are to be regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a procedure for obtaining stereological measurements that describe basic characteristics of the morphology of indigenous inclusions in steels and other metals using automatic image analysis. The practice can be applied to provide such data for any discrete second phase.
Note 1--Stereological measurement methods are used in this practice to assess the average characteristics of inclusions or other second-phase particles on a longitudinal plane-of-polish. This information, by itself, does not produce a three-dimensional description of these constituents in space as deformation processes cause rotation and alignment of these constituents in a preferred manner. Development of such information requires measurements on three orthogonal planes and is beyond the scope of this practice.
1.2 This practice specifically addresses the problem of producing stereological data when the features of the constituents to be measured make attainment of statistically reliable data difficult.
1.3 This practice deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability.
1.4 The measured values are stated in SI units, which are to be regarded as standard. Equivalent inch-pound values are in parentheses and may be approximate.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 These test methods are used to determine grain size from measurements of grain intercept lengths, intercept counts, intersection counts, grain boundary length, and grain areas.
1.2 These measurements are made with a semiautomatic digitizing tablet or by automatic image analysis using an image of the grain structure produced by a microscope.
1.3 These test methods are applicable to any type of grain structure or grain size distribution as long as the grain boundaries can be clearly delineated by etching and subsequent image processing, if necessary.
1.4 These test methods are applicable to measurement of other grain-like microstructures, such as cell structures.
1.5 This standard deals only with the recommended test methods and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability or fitness for purpose of the materials tested.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.7 The sections appear in the following order:  Section Section Scope 1 Referenced Documents 2 Terminology 3 Definitions 3.1 Descriptions of Terms Specific to This Standard 3.2 Symbols 3.3 Summary of Test Method 4 Significance and Use 5 Interferences 6 Apparatus 7 Sampling 8 Test Specimens 9 Specimen Preparation 10 Calibration 11 Procedure: Semiautomatic Digitizing Tablet 12 Intercept Lengths 12.3 Intercept and Intersection Counts 12.4 Grain Counts 12.5 Grain Areas 12.6 ALA Grain Size 12.6.1 Two-Phase Grain Structures 12.7 Procedure: Automatic Image Analysis 13 Grain Boundary Length 13.5 Intersection Counts 13.6 Mean Chord (Intercept) Length/Field 13.7 Individual Chord (Intercept) Lengths 13.7.4 Grain Counts 13.8 Mean Grain Area/Field 13.9 Individual Grain Areas 13.9.4 ALA Grain Size 13.9.8 Two-Phase Grain Structures 13.10 Calculation of Results 14 Test Report 15 Precision and Bias 16 Grain Size of Non-Equiaxed Grain Structure Specimens A1 Examples of Proper and Improper Grain Boundary Delineation A2

SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the radial sectioning technique 2,3,4  for measurement of the thickness of thin surface layers, made by a wide variety of processes, on metals, alloys, carbides, and oxides.  
1.2 This test method is applicable to measurement of a wide variety of surface layer types where the interface between the layer and substrate is discernible by natural color or reflectivity differences or by means of color or reflectivity differences due to etching or staining.  
1.3 This test method does not pertain to layer thickness measurements made by analysis of compositional variations.  
1.4 This test method deals only with the recommended test method and nothing in it should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability for any coating method.  
1.5 The measurement values stated are in the metric system, as defined in Standard E380.  
1.6  This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  For specific precautionary statements, see Section 7.