SIST EN 62290-1:2014

Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems - Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts

EN IEC 62290-1 provides an introduction to the standard and deals with the main concepts, the system definition, the principles and the basic functions of UGTMSs (Urban Guided Transport Management and Command/Control Systems) for use in urban guided passenger transport lines and networks. This part of IEC 62290 is applicable for new lines or for upgrading existing signalling and command control systems. This part of IEC 62290 is applicable to applications using: - continuous data transmission, - continuous supervision of train movements by train protection profile, - localisation of trains by external wayside equipment or reporting trains. This standard is not applicable to existing command and control systems or projects in progress prior to the effective date of this standard.

Bahnanwendungen - Betriebsleit- und Zugsicherungssysteme für den städtischen schienengebundenen Personennahverkehr - Teil 1: Systemgrundsätze und grundlegende Konzepte

Applications ferroviaires - Systèmes de contrôle/commande et de gestion des transports guidés urbains - Partie 1: Principes système et concepts fondamentaux

L'IEC 62290-1:2014 fournit une introduction à la norme, une présentation des concepts principaux, une définition du système, les principes et les fonctions de base des UGTMS (systèmes de contrôle/commande et de gestion des transports guidés urbains) utilisés par les lignes et les réseaux de transport guidé urbain de voyageurs. Elle est applicable aux lignes nouvelles ou à l'évolution des systèmes de contrôle/commande et de signalisation existants. Les principaux changements techniques par rapport à l'édition précédente sont les suivants: suppression du concept de catégorie de ligne (GOL), alignement de l'IEC 62290-1 avec l'IEC 62290-2.

Železniške naprave - Komandno-kontrolni sistemi za upravljanje urbanega prometa - 1. del: Sistemska načela in osnovni koncepti (IEC 62290-1:2014)

Standard EN IEC 62290-1 zagotavlja uvod v standard in obravnava glavne koncepte, sistemske definicije, načela ter osnovne funkcije komandno-kontrolnih sistemov za upravljanje urbanega prometa za uporabo v mestnih vodenih potniških prevoznih linijah in omrežjih. Ta del standarda IEC 62290 se uporablja za nove linije ali za posodabljanje obstoječih signalizacijskih in komandno-kontrolnih sistemov. Ta del standarda IEC 62290 velja za uporabe z: – neprekinjenim prenosom podatkov, – neprekinjenim nadzorom gibanja vlaka s profilom zaščite vlaka, – lokalizacijo vlakov z zunanjo stransko opremo ali s poročanjem o vlakih. Ta standard se ne uporablja za obstoječe komandne in kontrolne sisteme ali projekte v teku pred datumom začetka veljavnosti tega standarda.

General Information

• Status: Published
• Publication Date: 14-Oct-2014
• ICS: 03.220.30 - Transport by rail
• ICS: 45.060.01 - Railway rolling stock in general
• Technical Committee: ŽEN - Electrical applications for railways
• Current Stage: 6060 - National Implementation/Publication (Adopted Project)
• Start Date: 09-Oct-2014
• Due Date: 14-Dec-2014
• Completion Date: 15-Oct-2014
• Mandate: M/486 - Mandate for programming and standardisation addressed to the European standardisation bodies in the field of urban rail
• Ref Project: EN 62290-1:2014 - Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems - Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts

Relations

• Replaces: SIST EN 62290-1:2007 - Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems -- Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts
• Effective Date: 28-Jan-2023
• Revised: SIST EN 62290-1:2007 - Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems -- Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts
• Effective Date: 13-Sep-2013
• Replaces: SIST EN 62290-1:2007 - Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems -- Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts
• Effective Date: 05-Sep-2014
• Revised: oSIST prEN IEC 62290-1:2023 - Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems - Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts
• Effective Date: 14-Mar-2023
• Replaces: SIST EN 62290-1:2007 - Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control systems -- Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts
• Effective Date: 07-Jun-2022

Standards Content (Sample)

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST EN 62290-1:2014
01-november-2014
äHOH]QLãNHQDSUDYH.RPDQGQRNRQWUROQLVLVWHPL]DXSUDYOMDQMHXUEDQHJD
SURPHWDGHO6LVWHPVNDQDþHODLQRVQRYQLNRQFHSWL,(&
Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and command/control
systems - Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: EN 62290-1:2014
ICS:
03.220.30 Železniški transport Transport by rail
45.060.01 Železniška vozila na splošno Railway rolling stock in
general
SIST EN 62290-1:2014 en
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014


EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 62290-1

NORME EUROPÉENNE

EUROPÄISCHE NORM
September 2014
ICS 45.060 Supersedes EN 62290-1:2006
English Version
Railway applications - Urban guided transport management and
command/control systems - Part 1: System principles and
fundamental concepts
(IEC 62290-1:2014)
Applications ferroviaires - Systèmes de contrôle/commande Bahnanwendungen - Betriebsleit- und
et de gestion des transports guidés urbains - Zugsicherungssysteme für den städtischen
Partie 1: Principes système et concepts fondamentaux schienengebundenen Personennahverkehr -
(CEI 62290-1:2014) Teil 1: Systemgrundsätze und grundlegende Konzepte
(IEC 62290-1:2014)
This European Standard was approved by CENELEC on 2014-08-14. CENELEC members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC
Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration.
Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC
Management Centre or to any CENELEC member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by translation
under the responsibility of a CENELEC member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre has the
same status as the official versions.
CENELEC members are the national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey and the United Kingdom.


European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique
Europäisches Komitee für Elektrotechnische Normung
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Avenue Marnix 17, B-1000 Brussels
© 2014 CENELEC All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved worldwide for CENELEC Members.
 Ref. No. EN 62290-1:2014 E

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
EN 62290-1:2014 - 2 -
Foreword
The text of document 9/1913/FDIS, future edition 2 of IEC 62290-1, prepared by IEC/TC 9 "Electrical
equipment and systems for railways" was submitted to the IEC-CENELEC parallel vote and approved
by CENELEC as EN 62290-1:2014.
The following dates are fixed:
– latest date by which the document has to be implemented at (dop) 2015-05-14
national level by publication of an identical national
standard or by endorsement
– latest date by which the national standards conflicting with (dow) 2017-08-14
the document have to be withdrawn

This document supersedes EN 62290-1:2006.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. CENELEC [and/or CEN] shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such
patent rights.
Endorsement notice
The text of the International Standard IEC 62290-1:2014 was approved by CENELEC as a European
Standard without any modification.

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
- 3 - EN 62290-1:2014
Annex ZA
(normative)

Normative references to international publications
with their corresponding European publications
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this document and are
indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
NOTE 1 When an International Publication has been modified by common modifications, indicated by (mod),
the relevant EN/HD applies.
NOTE 2 Up-to-date information on the latest versions of the European Standards listed in this annex is
available here: www.cenelec.eu.

Publication Year Title EN/HD Year
IEC 62236 series Railway applications - Electromagnetic - -
compatibility
IEC 62278 -  Railway applications - Specification and - -
demonstration of reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety (RAMS)
IEC 62279 -  Railway applications - Communications, - -
signalling and processing systems -
Software for railway control and protection
systems
IEC 62280 -  Railway applications - Communication, - -
signalling and processing systems - Safety
related communication in transmission
systems
IEC 62290-2 -  Railway applications - Urban guided EN 62290-2 -
transport management and
command/control systems -
Part 2: Functional requirements
specification
IEC 62425 -  Railway applications - Communication, - -
signalling and processing systems - Safety
related electronic systems for signalling

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014



IEC 62290-1

®


Edition 2.0 2014-07




INTERNATIONAL



STANDARD




NORME



INTERNATIONALE











Railway applications – Urban guided transport management and

command/control systems –

Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts




Applications ferroviaires – Systèmes de contrôle/commande et de gestion des

transports guidés urbains –


Partie 1: Principes système et concepts fondamentaux













INTERNATIONAL

ELECTROTECHNICAL

COMMISSION


COMMISSION

ELECTROTECHNIQUE

PRICE CODE
INTERNATIONALE

CODE PRIX V


ICS 45.060 ISBN 978-2-8322-1648-4



Warning! Make sure that you obtained this publication from an authorized distributor.

Attention! Veuillez vous assurer que vous avez obtenu cette publication via un distributeur agréé.

® Registered trademark of the International Electrotechnical Commission
Marque déposée de la Commission Electrotechnique Internationale

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
– 2 – IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014
CONTENTS
FOREWORD . 4
INTRODUCTION . 6
1 Scope . 9
2 Normative references . 9
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviations . 9
3.1 Terms and definitions. 10
3.2 Abbreviations . 14
4 Concepts . 15
4.1 Urban guided transport (UGT) . 15
4.1.1 General . 15
4.1.2 Operations . 15
4.1.3 Operational facilities . 15
4.1.4 Rolling stock . 16
4.1.5 Staff . 16
4.1.6 Passengers . 16
4.2 Grade of automation . 16
4.2.1 Descriptions . 16
4.2.2 Implementation of grades of automation . 18
4.2.3 Grades of automation covered by UGTMS . 18
4.3 Operation management and supervision . 19
4.4 Interoperability, interchangeability, compatibility and adaptability . 19
4.4.1 General . 19
4.4.2 Interoperability. 19
4.4.3 Interchangeability . 19
4.4.4 Compatibility . 19
4.4.5 Adaptability . 20
5 System environment and boundaries . 20
6 General requirements and description of the basic functions . 21
6.1 General requirements . 21
6.1.1 System approach . 21
6.1.2 RAMS requirements . 21
6.1.3 Electromagnetic compatibility . 21
6.1.4 Energy saving . 21
6.1.5 Local conditions . 21
6.1.6 Intermodality between networks . 22
6.1.7 Interoperability between neighbouring UGTMS fitted networks . 22
6.1.8 Measures to ensure the movement of passengers with reduced mobility . 22
6.1.9 Nominal mode, degraded modes, emergency situation . 22
6.1.10 Basic system performances . 22
6.1.11 Requirements for upgrading GOA . 23
6.1.12 Requirements for adding new parts of line . 23
6.2 Description of the basic functions . 23
6.2.1 General . 23
6.2.2 Basic functions for train operation. 23
6.2.3 Basic functions for operation management and supervision . 26
Bibliography . 29

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Figure 1 – The three-step process followed by the UGTMS standard . 8
Figure 2 – Example of track layout . 16
Figure 3 – System environment . 20

Table 1 – Grades of automation . 17

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
– 4 – IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014
INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION
____________

RAILWAY APPLICATIONS –
URBAN GUIDED TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT
AND COMMAND/CONTROL SYSTEMS –

Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts

FOREWORD
1) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising
all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, IEC publishes International Standards, Technical Specifications,
Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications (PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as “IEC
Publication(s)”). Their preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested
in the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-
governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. IEC collaborates closely
with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by
agreement between the two organizations.
2) The formal decisions or agreements of IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an international
consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation from all
interested IEC National Committees.
3) IEC Publications have the form of recommendations for international use and are accepted by IEC National
Committees in that sense. While all reasonable efforts are made to ensure that the technical content of IEC
Publications is accurate, IEC cannot be held responsible for the way in which they are used or for any
misinterpretation by any end user.
4) In order to promote international uniformity, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC Publications
transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional publications. Any divergence
between any IEC Publication and the corresponding national or regional publication shall be clearly indicated in
the latter.
5) IEC itself does not provide any attestation of conformity. Independent certification bodies provide conformity
assessment services and, in some areas, access to IEC marks of conformity. IEC is not responsible for any
services carried out by independent certification bodies.
6) All users should ensure that they have the latest edition of this publication.
7) No liability shall attach to IEC or its directors, employees, servants or agents including individual experts and
members of its technical committees and IEC National Committees for any personal injury, property damage or
other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether direct or indirect, or for costs (including legal fees) and
expenses arising out of the publication, use of, or reliance upon, this IEC Publication or any other IEC
Publications.
8) Attention is drawn to the Normative references cited in this publication. Use of the referenced publications is
indispensable for the correct application of this publication.
9) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this IEC Publication may be the subject of
patent rights. IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard IEC 62290-1 has been prepared by IEC technical committee 9:
Electrical equipment and systems for railways.
This second edition cancels and replaces the first edition issued in 2006. It constitutes a
technical revision.
The main technical changes with regard to the previous edition are as follows:
– removing the concept of grade of line (GOL),
– putting IEC 62290-1 in line with IEC 62290-2.

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014 – 5 –
The text of this standard is based on the following documents:
FDIS Report on voting
9/1913/FDIS 9/1941/RVD

Full information on the voting for the approval of this standard can be found in the report on
voting indicated in the above table.
This publication has been drafted in accordance with the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
A list of all parts of IEC 62290 series, under the general title: Railway applications – Urban
guided transport management and command/control systems, can be found on the IEC
website. (See also introduction to this standard.)
The committee has decided that the contents of this publication will remain unchanged until
the stability date indicated on the IEC web site under "http://webstore.iec.ch" in the data
related to the specific publication. At this date, the publication will be
• reconfirmed,
• withdrawn,
• replaced by a revised edition, or
• amended.

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
– 6 – IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014
INTRODUCTION
IEC 62290 standard series specifies the functional, system and interface requirements for the
command, control, and management systems intended to be used on urban, guided
passenger transport lines and networks. This series does not apply to lines that are operated
under specific railway regulations, unless otherwise specified by the authority having
jurisdiction.
These systems are designated here as Urban Guided Transport Management and
Command/Control Systems (UGTMS). UGTMS cover a wide range of operations needs from
non-automated (GOA1) to unattended (GOA4) operation. A line may be equipped with
UGTMS on its full length or only partly equipped.
This series does not specifically address security issues. However, aspects of safety
requirements may apply to ensuring security within the urban guided transit system.
The main objective of this series is to achieve interoperability, interchangeability and
compatibility.
This series is a recommendation for those transport authorities wishing to introduce
interoperable, interchangeable and compatible equipment.
It is the responsibility of the transport authority concerned in accordance with the authority
having jurisdiction to decide on how to apply this series and to take into account their
particular needs.
IEC 62290 series is also intended to support applications for upgrading existing signalling and
command control systems. In this case, interchangeability and compatibility could be ensured
only for the additional UGTMS equipment. Checking the possibility for upgrading existing
equipment and the level of interoperability is the responsibility of the transport authority
concerned.
Application of the series should take into account the differences between the various
networks operated in different nations. Those differences include operational and regulatory
requirements as well as different safety cultures.
This series defines a catalogue of UGTMS requirements split into mandatory and optional
functions. The functions used are based on the given grade of automation. By fulfilling the
requirements, a supplier can create one or more generic applications including all mandatory
functions and all or a subset of optional functions. A generic application will achieve
interoperability within the defined specific application conditions. Customising a generic
application will create a specific application taking into account of local conditions like track
layout and headway requirements. It is the choice of supplier and transport authority to add
additional functions to a generic or specific application. These additional functions are not
described in this series.
According to IEC 62278, it is the responsibility of the transport authority, in agreement with
the authority having jurisdiction, to decide, taking into account their risk acceptance principles
to conduct specific hazard and risk analysis for each specific application. The safety levels for
the functions of each specific application have to be determined by a specific risk analysis.
Terms such as "safety related command", "safety conditions", "safe station departure" are
mentioned without having performed any hazard analysis.
Standard series IEC 62290 is intended to consist of four parts:
– Part 1 “System principles and fundamental concepts” provides an introduction to the
standard and deals with the main concepts, the system definition, the principles and the

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014 – 7 –
main basic functions of UGTMS (Urban Guided Transport Management and
Command/Control Systems).
The three other parts correspond to the three steps (see Figure 1) required in the process of
specifying UGTMS and are to be used accordingly.
– Part 2 “Functional requirements specification” specifies the functional requirements
associated to the basic functions provided by Part 1, within the system boundaries and
interfaces as defined in Figure 3 of Part 1.
The FRS (Functional Requirements Specification) identifies and defines the functions that
are necessary to operate an urban guided transport system. Two types of functions are
distinguished for a given grade of automation: mandatory functions (e.g. train detection)
and optional functions (e.g. interfaces to passenger information and passenger
surveillance systems). Requirements of functions have the same allocation, unless they
are marked otherwise.
– Part 3 (under consideration) “System requirements specifications” deals with the
architecture of the system and the allocation of the requirements and functions identified
in part 2 to architecture constituents.
The SRS (System Requirements Specification) specifies the architecture of a UGTMS
system, with mandatory and optional constituents.
– Part 4 (under consideration) “Interface specifications” deals with the definition of the
interfaces, as well as the data exchanged by them (FIS and FFFIS), for the interoperable
and interchangeable constituents identified in part 3.
For interfaces between UGTMS constituents, the logical interface or FIS (Functional
Interface Specification) and/or the physical and logical interface or FFFIS (Form Fit
Functional Interface Specification) will be considered.
NOTE The specific structures of part 3 and part 4 will be established following completion of part 2 to
accommodate optional and mandatory constituents, and to reflect local conditions. In principle, only one FIS or/and
FFFIS will be defined for the same interface. However, when justified in some cases, several FIS or several FFFIS
will be defined for the same interface.

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– 8 – IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014


Functional
requirements
(FRS)

System requirements
(SRS)

Interface requirements
(FIS or/and FFFIS)
IEC  1339/06

Figure 1 – The three-step process followed by the UGTMS standard
Requirements are those necessary to fulfil all operational needs for safe and orderly operation
requested by transport authorities without regard to technical solutions.
The chosen level of detail in describing requirements enables customers as well as authorities
having jurisdiction to be assured that generic applications delivered by different suppliers will
cover at least the same functionality as specified in this part of IEC 62290.
Requirements which are established by this series are indicated clearly with a requirement
identification number related to the function to be covered.

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SIST EN 62290-1:2014
IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014 – 9 –
RAILWAY APPLICATIONS –
URBAN GUIDED TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT
AND COMMAND/CONTROL SYSTEMS –

Part 1: System principles and fundamental concepts



1 Scope
This part of IEC 62290 provides an introduction to the standard and deals with the main
concepts, the system definition, the principles and the basic functions of UGTMSs (Urban
Guided Transport Management and Command/Control Systems) for use in urban guided
passenger transport lines and networks. This part of IEC 62290 is applicable for new lines or
for upgrading existing signalling and command control systems.
This part of IEC 62290 is applicable to applications using:
• continuous data transmission,
• continuous supervision of train movements by train protection profile,
• localisation of trains by external wayside equipment or reporting trains.
This standard is not applicable to existing command and control systems or projects in
progress prior to the effective date of this standard.
2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this document and
are indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any
amendments) applies.
IEC 62236 (all parts), Railway applications – Electromagnetic compatibility
IEC 62278, Railway applications – Specification and demonstration of reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety (RAMS)
IEC 62279, Railway applications – Communications, signalling and processing systems –
Software for railway control and protection systems
IEC 62280, Railway applications - Communication, signalling and processing systems - Safety
related communication in transmission systems
IEC 62290-2, Railway applications – Urban guided transport management and
command/control systems – Part 2: Functional requirements specification
IEC 62425, Railway applications – Communication, signalling and processing systems –
Safety related electronic systems for signalling
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviations
For the purposes of this document, the following terms, definitions and abbreviations apply.

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3.1 Terms and definitions
3.1.1
additional function
function to be adapted to the specific requirements of each transport authority (due to local
rules or specific needs of the transport authority)
Note 1 to entry: The components affected by this function are not necessarily interchangeable nor interoperable.
3.1.2
automatic mode
operation in semi-automated train operation (GOA2), driverless train operation (GOA3),
unattended train operation (GOA4)
3.1.3
command
order used to perform a function in a system
Note 1 to entry: This order can originate from
– a system operator,
– an external system,
– inside UGTMS;
this order can be sent:
– to an external system,
– inside UGTMS.
3.1.4
commercial speed
nominal average speed of passenger service trains between two terminus stations of the line
(dwell times at stations taken into account)
Note 1 to entry: Commercial speed is equal to the length between two terminus stations divided by the nominal
journey time.
3.1.5
compatibility
capability of the UGTMS system to co-exist with other systems in the same transport network
without any interference
3.1.6
constituent
any elementary component, group of components, subassembly or complete assembly of
equipment incorporated or intended to be incorporated into UGTMS
3.1.7
control
process to keep the output of the system within defined parameters using commands for non-
safety related control or safety related control
Note 1 to entry: An example of non-safety related control is the process of commanding acceleration or braking to
maintain speed at x km/h ± y km/h. An example of safety related control is the process of commanding the
emergency brakes if the speed exceeds the predefined speed limit.
3.1.8
driving on sight
manual driving carried out at a speed that allows the driver to stop the train before reaching
any obstacle on the track

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IEC 62290-1:2014 © IEC 2014 – 11 –
3.1.9
emergency brake
brake or combination of brakes which ensures that the train will stop with the brake rate
agreed between authority having jurisdiction, transport authority and train manufacturer
3.1.10
generic application
application which contains all mandatory and all or a subset of optional functions, with
predefined configurability and customisable for different specific applications
3.1.11
generic product
product independent of applications, fulfilling predefined boundary conditions, interfaces and
functionality (black box)
EXAMPLES: point machines, axle counters, real-time operating systems, fail-safe computer platforms without
application software.
3.1.12
grad
...