91.080 - Structures of buildings
ICS 91.080 Details
Structures of buildings
Baustrukturen
Structures de construction
Gradbene konstrukcije
General Information
Frequently Asked Questions
ICS 91.080 is a classification code in the International Classification for Standards (ICS) system. It covers "Structures of buildings". The ICS is a hierarchical classification system used to organize international, regional, and national standards, facilitating the search and identification of standards across different fields.
There are 1872 standards classified under ICS 91.080 (Structures of buildings). These standards are published by international and regional standardization bodies including ISO, IEC, CEN, CENELEC, and ETSI.
The International Classification for Standards (ICS) is a hierarchical classification system maintained by ISO to organize standards and related documents. It uses a three-level structure with field (2 digits), group (3 digits), and sub-group (2 digits) codes. The ICS helps users find standards by subject area and enables statistical analysis of standards development activities.
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1.1 Scope of EN 1993-7
(1) This document is applicable for the design of structural or self-supporting systems made of sandwich panels with steel and stainless steel faces and core material with a Declaration of Performance (according to EN 14509) used as internal and external walls, roofs and ceilings.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993‐1 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in EN 1993‐7 are applicable if:
- the construction materials and products are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 14509, or
- in the relevant material and product specifications.
- Draft81 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 19100-1
(1) This document gives basic design rules for glass structures, assemblies and components. This document is concerned with the requirements for resistance, serviceability, fracture characteristics and glass component failure consequences in relation to human safety, robustness and redundancy of glass structures.
(2) This document covers the basis of design, structural design, materials, durability, and construction rules.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) The assumptions given in EN 1990-1 apply.
(2) This document is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts), the parts of EN 1992 to EN 1999 where glass structures or glass components are referred to within those documents and EN 12488.
- Draft43 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 19100-3
(1) This document gives design rules for glass components and assemblies primarily subjected to in-plane loading. It also covers effects of loads acting both in-plane and parallel to the plane produced by the neutral axes of the component, including construction rules for joints connecting in-plane loaded glass components.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) The assumptions of EN 1990-1, EN 19100-1 and EN 19100-2 apply.
(2) This document is intended to be used in conjunction with, EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts), EN 1993-1-1, EN 1995-1-1, EN 1998 (all parts), EN 1999-1-1, EN 19100-1, EN 19100-2 and EN 12488.
- Draft34 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 19100-2
(1) This document gives basic structural design rules for glass components and assemblies primarily subjected to out-of-plane loading.
NOTE Out-of-plane loads are loads acting normal to (e.g. wind) or having a component (e.g. dead load, snow) acting normal to the glass plane.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) The assumptions given in EN 1990-1 apply.
- Draft70 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document provides guidelines for the planning, design and construction of a cylindrical tank constructed on the ground with prestressed concrete (PC) for use with potable water tank. This document is applicable to PC tanks for potable water with a capacity of 30 000 m3 or less and the diameter-to-height ratio (D/H) from 1,0 to 3,0. NOTE 1 The D/H ratio within the range of 1 to 3 is generally considered as a reasonable shape for a PC water tank. However, even if the ratio exceeds 3, this document is applied for design purposes except for applying the Hausner method. NOTE 2 When designing and constructing a tank not covered by this document (reinforced concrete tanks, underground tanks, elevated tanks, etc.), a designer can refer to this document for common elements where possible.
- Standard152 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document establishes a classification for one component polyurethane (PUR) adhesives according to their suitability for use in load-bearing timber products in defined climatic exposure conditions, and specifies performance requirements for such adhesives for the factory manufacture or factory-like manufacturing of load-bearing timber products only.
It also classifies “adhesive product lines” where all the products within the line have the same chemical composition except for a different amount of catalyst.
This document only specifies the performance of adhesives for use in an environment corresponding to the defined conditions.
The performance requirements of this document are applicable to the adhesives only, not to the manufactured timber products. This document does not cover the performance of adhesives for on-site gluing (except for factory-like conditions) or the production of wood-based panels, except solid wood panels, or modified and stabilized wood with considerably reduced swelling and shrinkage properties, e.g. acetylated wood, heat treated wood and polymer impregnated wood.
This document is primarily intended for use by adhesive manufacturers and for use in timber products bonded with adhesives, to assess or control the quality of adhesives. The requirements are applicable to the type testing of the adhesives. Production control activities are outside the scope of this document.
Adhesives meeting the requirements of this document are adequate for use in load-bearing timber products, provided that the bonding process has been carried out according to an appropriate product standard.
This document does not address the classification and use of adhesives in combination with the spraying of water before or during the bonding process; see informative Annex C of this document.
This does neither allow nor forbid the use of adhesives in combination with the spraying of water.
- Standard24 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document establishes a classification for phenolic and aminoplastic polycondensation adhesives according to their suitability for use for load-bearing timber products in defined climatic exposure conditions, and specifies performance requirements for such adhesives for the factory manufacture or factory-like manufacturing conditions of load-bearing timber products only.
This document only specifies the performance of an adhesive for use in an environment corresponding to the defined conditions.
The performance requirements of this document are applicable to the adhesive only, not to the manufacturing timber products. This document does not cover the performance of adhesives for on-site gluing (except for factory-like conditions) or the production of wood-based panels, except solid wood panels, or modified and stabilized wood with considerably reduced swelling and shrinkage properties, e.g. acetylated wood, heat treated wood and polymer impregnated wood.
This document is primarily intended for use by adhesive manufacturers and for use in timber products bonded with adhesives, to assess or control the quality of adhesives. The requirements are applicable to the type testing of the adhesives. Production control activities are outside the scope of this document.
Adhesives meeting the requirements of this document are adequate for use in load-bearing timber products, provided that the bonding process has been carried out according to an appropriate product standard.
- Standard17 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies a method of determining the ability of adhesive bonds to resist static load. It is applicable to adhesives used in load bearing timber structures.
It is applicable for the following applications:
a) for assessing the compliance of adhesives according to EN 301, EN 15425, EN 16254, EN 17334 and EN 17418;
b) for assessing the suitability and quality of adhesives for load-bearing timber structures;
c) for assessing the effect on the bond strength resulting from constant load at different climate conditions.
This method is intended primarily to obtain performance data for the classification of adhesives for load bearing timber structures according to their suitability for use in defined climatic environments.
This method is not intended to provide data for structural design and does not necessarily represent the performance of the bonded member in service.
- Standard20 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document shows measures and potentials in the medium and long term to contribute to decarbonisation, resource efficiency and sustainability in the concrete sector compared to those measures that can already be taken in daily business today. Reduction of GHG emissions and resource efficiency are to be addressed at the same time and can affect each other; e.g. decreasing amount of fly ash in some countries due to the decommissioning of coal-fired power plants. As the embodied carbon in construction accounts for approx. 25-30 % of the GHG emissions of the life cycle of a typical building today, it has to be embedded into a LCA approach for the whole service life.
On CEN-Level as a consequence the general question is: “What can be done in the standards to go further in supporting decarbonisation, resource efficiency and sustainability in the concrete sector in the best possible way.
Values in the annexes are subject to change over time e.g. based on changes in the respective standards.
- Technical report64 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document gives guidance, what measures can be taken in daily business already today to contribute to decarbonisation, resource efficiency and sustainability in the concrete sector.
Although concrete structural elements can be supplemented by other materials either for new construction or the retrofit of a structure, this document addresses concrete elements, bearing in mind the possibilities to increase resource efficiency and reuse of structures.
- Technical report29 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies a test method to determine parameters of bolt tightening procedures for pretensioned bolted connections to be used in structural steelwork. The methods to establish bolt tightening procedures given in this document are applicable to pretensioned bolted connections for which no approved tightening parameters exist in national or international standards. For example, in cases where bolting assemblies have to be tightened by turning the head instead of the nut, when conditions deviate from a given harmonized standard for pretensioning of bolting assemblies, or when stainless steel bolting assemblies are to be pretensioned. In these cases, tightening parameters as well as tightening procedures can be determined with the use of the Bolt Tightening Qualification Procedure (BTQP) given in this document.
- Standard14 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document describes the test and assessment procedure for determining the contribution of reactive fire protection systems to the fire resistance of solid steel bars used as tension members, when exposed to the standard temperature/time curve specified in EN 1363-1. In special circumstances, where specified in National Building Regulations, there can be a need to subject reactive fire protection systems to a slow heating curve (smouldering fire) as defined in EN 1363-2. The corresponding test and assessment procedure are described in Annex E. The fire protection performance is determined by testing mechanically loaded steel bars in horizontal orientation. Information regarding the testing of additional unloaded specimens is given to assess the influence of the bar orientation and smouldering fire behaviour.
The principles of the testing and assessment procedure can also be applied for other section shapes such as angles, channels and flats. This document does not include steel bars used as reinforcement in concrete construction.
The document is applicable to steel bars up to a maximum diameter of 130 mm. In the case of rectangular bars, the maximum edge length shall be limited to 130 mm with a maximum aspect ratio of 2:1 against the shorter edge length.
The test programme and the assessment are designed to cover:
- a range of valid fire protection classification periods;
- a range of thickness of the applied reactive fire protection system;
- a range of steel bar dimensions and profiles;
- a range of specified design temperatures;
- a range of load utilisation factors in case of fire;
- a range of bar orientation.
This document also provides the assessment procedure, which prescribes how the analysis of the test data shall be made and gives guidance on the procedures by which interpolation shall be undertaken. The assessment procedure is used to establish:
a) on the basis of data derived from mechanically loaded testing steel bar, any practical constraints on the use of the reactive fire protection system under fire test conditions (the physical performance);
b) on the basis of the temperature data derived from testing steel bar the thermal properties of the reactive fire protection system (the thermal performance).
The limits of applicability of the results of the assessment arising from the fire test are defined together with permitted direct application of the results to different steel types and sizes over the range of thicknesses of the applied reactive fire protection system tested.
- Standard71 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document provides general product category rules (PCR) for Type III environmental declarations for wood and wood-based products, including wood-based panels, for use in construction and related construction and in-service processes.
This document complements the core rules for the product category of construction products as defined in EN 15804 and is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 15804.
This document does not cover the assessment of social and economic performances at product level.
The core PCR:
— define the parameters to be declared and the way in which they are collated and reported;
— describe which stages of a product’s life cycle are considered in the EPD and which processes are to be included in the life cycle stages;
— define rules for the development of scenarios;
— include the rules for calculating the life cycle inventory and the life cycle impact assessment underlying the EPD, including the specification of the data quality to be applied;
— include the rules for reporting predetermined, environmental and health information, that is not covered by LCA for a product, construction process and construction service where necessary;
— define the conditions under which construction products can be compared based on the information provided by EPD.
For the EPD of construction services, the same rules and requirements apply as for the EPD of construction products.
Additionally, to the common parts of EN 15804, this document for wood and wood-based products:
— defines the system boundaries;
— defines the rules for modelling and assessment of material-specific characteristics such as carbon content and net calorific value of wood;
— defines allocation procedures for multi-output processes along the wood chain;
— defines allocation procedures for reuse, recycling and energy recovery;
— includes the rules for calculating the life cycle inventory and the life cycle impact assessment underlying the EPD, including the assessment of carbon and net calorific value of wood;
— provides guidance/specific rules for the determination of the reference service life (RSL).
- Standard45 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document describes the test and assessment procedure for determining the contribution of reactive fire protection systems to the fire resistance of solid steel bars used as tension members, when exposed to the standard temperature/time curve specified in EN 1363-1. In special circumstances, where specified in National Building Regulations, there can be a need to subject reactive fire protection systems to a slow heating curve (smouldering fire) as defined in EN 1363-2. The corresponding test and assessment procedure are described in Annex E. The fire protection performance is determined by testing mechanically loaded steel bars in horizontal orientation. Information regarding the testing of additional unloaded specimens is given to assess the influence of the bar orientation and smouldering fire behaviour.
The principles of the testing and assessment procedure can also be applied for other section shapes such as angles, channels and flats. This document does not include steel bars used as reinforcement in concrete construction.
The document is applicable to steel bars up to a maximum diameter of 130 mm. In the case of rectangular bars, the maximum edge length shall be limited to 130 mm with a maximum aspect ratio of 2:1 against the shorter edge length.
The test programme and the assessment are designed to cover:
- a range of valid fire protection classification periods;
- a range of thickness of the applied reactive fire protection system;
- a range of steel bar dimensions and profiles;
- a range of specified design temperatures;
- a range of load utilisation factors in case of fire;
- a range of bar orientation.
This document also provides the assessment procedure, which prescribes how the analysis of the test data shall be made and gives guidance on the procedures by which interpolation shall be undertaken. The assessment procedure is used to establish:
a) on the basis of data derived from mechanically loaded testing steel bar, any practical constraints on the use of the reactive fire protection system under fire test conditions (the physical performance);
b) on the basis of the temperature data derived from testing steel bar the thermal properties of the reactive fire protection system (the thermal performance).
The limits of applicability of the results of the assessment arising from the fire test are defined together with permitted direct application of the results to different steel types and sizes over the range of thicknesses of the applied reactive fire protection system tested.
- Standard71 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This CEN/TR gives guidance on what measures can be taken in daily business already today to
contribute to decarbonisation, resource efficiency and sustainability in the concrete sector.
- Technical report29 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This CEN/TR shows measures and potentials in the medium and long term to contribute to
decarbonisation, resource efficiency and sustainability in the concrete sector compared to those
measures that can already be taken in daily business already today.
- Technical report64 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document provides general product category rules (PCR) for Type III environmental declarations for wood and wood-based products, including wood-based panels, for use in construction and related construction and in-service processes.
This document complements the core rules for the product category of construction products as defined in EN 15804 and is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 15804.
This document does not cover the assessment of social and economic performances at product level.
The core PCR:
— define the parameters to be declared and the way in which they are collated and reported;
— describe which stages of a product’s life cycle are considered in the EPD and which processes are to be included in the life cycle stages;
— define rules for the development of scenarios;
— include the rules for calculating the life cycle inventory and the life cycle impact assessment underlying the EPD, including the specification of the data quality to be applied;
— include the rules for reporting predetermined, environmental and health information, that is not covered by LCA for a product, construction process and construction service where necessary;
— define the conditions under which construction products can be compared based on the information provided by EPD.
For the EPD of construction services, the same rules and requirements apply as for the EPD of construction products.
Additionally, to the common parts of EN 15804, this document for wood and wood-based products:
— defines the system boundaries;
— defines the rules for modelling and assessment of material-specific characteristics such as carbon content and net calorific value of wood;
— defines allocation procedures for multi-output processes along the wood chain;
— defines allocation procedures for reuse, recycling and energy recovery;
— includes the rules for calculating the life cycle inventory and the life cycle impact assessment underlying the EPD, including the assessment of carbon and net calorific value of wood;
— provides guidance/specific rules for the determination of the reference service life (RSL).
- Standard45 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies the properties and characteristics of typical vertical joints between two prefabricated concrete external wall components irrespective of whether these joints coincide with joints between the external wall and an internal wall or column. However, the characteristics of joints which are involved in the structural behaviour of buildings are not specified in this document. This document is applicable to all public or private buildings, used as dwellings, offices, educational or hospital premises.
- Standard11 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
1.1 Scope of EN 1993 4 1
(1) prEN 1993 4 1 provides rules for the structural design of steel silos of circular or rectangular plan-form, being free-standing (on ground) or supported on a structural framework (elevated).
(2) prEN 1993 4 1 is applicable to silos constructed from isotropic rolled plates that are stiffened or unstiffened, from corrugated sheeting that is stiffened or unstiffened and from flat or corrugated plates assembled into box structures of different geometries. It applies to vertical walls, hoppers, roof structures, transition junctions and support structures.
(3) prEN 1993 4 1 does not apply to storage vessels for silage and haylage, or to the storage of materials that are not free-flowing (see EN 1991 4). This Part 4-1 also does not cover:
- resistance to fire;
- cylindrical silos with internal subdivisions;
- internal structures within a single silo (except for internal ties, as defined in 12.5);
- silos with capacity less than 100 kN (10 tonnes);
- hoppers that are supported on a structural framework;
- cases where special measures are necessary to limit the consequences of accidents.
(4) This document is applicable to silos within the following dimensional limits (see EN 1991-4):
- Silo aspect ratio hb/dc < 10
- Silo total height hb < 70 m
- Silo equivalent diameter dc < 60 m
NOTE These dimensional limitations are more limited than those of EN 1991-4 which also applies to silos constructed from other materials.
(5) Where this standard applies to circular planform silos, the geometric form is restricted to axisymmetric structures, but unsymmetrical actions on them and supports that induce forces in the silo structure that are not axisymmetric are included.
(6) This part is concerned only with the requirements for resistance and stability of steel silos. For other requirements (such as operational safety, functional performance, fabrication and erection, quality control, details like man-holes, flanges, filling devices, outlet gates and feeders, etc.), see other relevant standards and information.
(7) This part is concerned with both isolated silo structures and silos that are connected to others to form a battery of silos, but throughout this document the term silo refers to a single cell within a battery.
(8) Provisions relating to special requirements of seismic design are provided in EN 1998 4, which complements or adapts the provisions of Eurocode 3 specifically for this purpose.
(9) The structural design of supporting structures for the silo are dealt with in EN 1993 1 1. The supporting structure is deemed to consist of all structural elements beneath the bottom flange of the lowest ring of the silo (see Figure 1.1), though information on some forms of support structure is given in Clause 8 of this document.
(10) Foundations in reinforced concrete for steel silos are dealt with in EN 1992 (all parts) and EN 1997 (all parts).
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, the provisions of EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993 1 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in EN 1993 4 1 are applicable if:
- the execution quality is as specified in EN 1090 2, and
- the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993 (all parts), or in the relevant material and product specifications.
Figure 1.1 - Terminology used in silo structures
...
- Draft153 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1994-1-1
(1) EN 1994-1-1 gives general rules for the design of steel and concrete composite structures and supplementary provisions specific for buildings.
NOTE Specific rules for bridges are given in EN 1994-2.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) The assumptions of EN 1990-1 apply to EN 1994-1-1.
(2) In addition to the general assumptions of EN 1990-1, the assumptions given in EN 1992-1-1, EN 1992-1-2, and EN 1993-1-1 apply to this document.
(3) EN 1994-1-1 is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts), EN 1992-1-1, EN 1993 (all parts), EN 1997 (all parts), EN 1998 (all parts when steel and concrete composite structures are built in seismic regions), EN 1090-1, EN 1090-2, EN 1090-4, EN 13670 and ENs for construction products relevant to steel and concrete composite structures.
- Draft218 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1993-1-11
(1) EN 1993-1-11 provides rules for structural design of tension components made of steel, in addition to other parts of EN 1993, for use in structures made of steel or other materials such as concrete, steel-concrete composite and timber.
(2) EN 1993-1-11 covers the resistance, serviceability and durability of steel tension elements.
(3) The following items/aspects are outside the scope of EN 1993-1-11:
— pre- or post-tensioned systems in accordance with EN 1992-1-1;
— reinforcing steel as part of a concrete structure in accordance with EN 1992-1-1;
— tension components in piling;
— detailed design of terminations.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993-1 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in EN 1993-1-11 are applicable if:
— execution quality is according to EN 1090-2; and
— the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of the EN 1993 series, or in the relevant material and product specifications.
- Draft84 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1993-3
(1) This document provides rules for structural design of towers, masts and chimney structures, that fall into any of the following classifications, with the exceptions given in (3), (4) and (5).
(2) This document is applicable to:
a) self-supporting towers and guyed masts with or without attachments. The shafts of towers and masts can be of lattice type or of circular or polygonal cross-section;
b) chimney structures of circular cross-section that are cantilevered, supported at intermediate levels or guyed.
NOTE 1 The structures are mainly exposed to wind loading.
NOTE 2 For overhead transmission line towers, see also the EN 50341 series.
(3) This document does not apply to:
a) polygonal and circular lighting columns covered by the EN 40 series;
NOTE The EN 40 series specifies the requirements and dimensions for lighting columns and it applies to post top columns not exceeding 20 m height and to post top lanterns and columns with brackets not exceeding 18 m height for side entry lanterns.
b) wind turbine towers (see the EN IEC 61400 series);
c) overhead line towers covered by the EN 50341 series.
(4) This document does not cover special provisions for seismic design, which are given in the EN 1998 series.
(5) Special measures that might be necessary to limit the consequences of accidents are not covered in this document. For resistance to fire, see EN 1993-1-2.
(6) Provisions for the guys of guyed structures are given in EN 1993-1-11 and supplemented in this document.
(7) For provisions concerning aspects such as chemical attack, thermo-dynamical performance or thermal insulation of chimneys, see EN 13084-1. For the design of liners, see EN 13084-6.
NOTE 1 Foundations are covered in the EN 1997 series. See also EN 13084-1.
NOTE 2 Wind loads and procedures for the wind response of structures are specified in EN 1991-1-4.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993-1 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in this document are applicable if
- the execution quality is as specified in Annex E and EN 1090-2 and for the execution of chimneys, also in EN 13084-6,
and
- the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of the EN 1993 series or, for materials other than steel, in the relevant material and product specifications.
NOTE Execution is covered in this document to the extent that is necessary to indicate the quality of the construction materials and products and the standard of workmanship on site needed to comply with the assumptions of the design rules.
- Draft77 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1995-2
(1) This document gives general design rules for the structural parts of bridges, i.e. structural members of importance for the reliability of the whole bridge or major parts of it, made of timber or other wood-based materials, either singly or compositely with concrete, steel or other materials.
(2) Prestressed timber-concrete composite (TCC) members are not covered by this document. The design of stress-laminated timber decks used as part of a TCC system is covered.
(3) Systems which rely on friction between wood and concrete are not covered by this document.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) The assumptions of EN 1990 apply to this document.
(2) It is assumed that the requirements for execution given in EN 1995 3 are complied with.
- Draft84 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of FprEN 1993 2
(1) This document provides rules for the structural design of steel bridges and steel parts of steel-concrete composite bridges.
(2) This document is applicable to the resistance, serviceability and durability of steel bridge structures.
(3) The design of tension components and related parts is covered by EN 1993 1 11.
NOTE For the design of hangers for tied-arch bridges, additional provisions are given in Annex A.
(4) Supplementary requirements for seismic design are given in EN 1998 2.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts), EN 1998 (all parts) and EN 1993 1 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in FprEN 1993 2 are applicable if:
- the execution quality is as specified in EN 1090 2 and EN 1090 4, and
- the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993, or in the relevant material and product specifications.
- Draft126 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1993-6
(1) EN 1993-6 provides rules for structural design of crane supporting structures.
(2) EN 1993-6 is applicable to crane supporting structures, especially to indoor and outdoor overhead crane runway beams, of:
a) overhead travelling cranes, either:
— top-mounted cranes;
— underslung cranes;
b) monorail hoist blocks.
NOTE The principles of the design rules can be applied to supporting structures of other types of cranes making due allowance for differences in the crane-induced actions, if exist. For example, the design rules for supporting structures of the cranes listed in (2) assume that the horizontal crane loads occur randomly scattered along the runways in general. This assumption does not apply to other cranes such as travelling wall jib cranes.
(3) EN 1993-6 does not apply to the tracks and suspensions of light crane systems conforming to EN 16851, see Figure 1.1.
NOTE The standardized tracks and suspensions of light crane systems are considered as parts of the crane.
[Figure 1.1 — Light crane system]
(4) Additional rules are given for ancillary runway items including crane rails, structural end stops, surge connectors and surge girders and for runway supporting structures.
(5) EN 1993-6 does not apply to cranes and all other moving parts.
NOTE Provisions for cranes are given in EN 13001 (all parts) in general and for bridge and gantry cranes in EN 15011 in particular.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990-1, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993-1 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in EN 1993-6 are applicable if
— the execution quality and tolerances are as specified in EN 1090-2, and;
— the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993, or in the relevant material and product specifications.
(3) Following interfaces between hoisting device and its supporting structure are assumed:
a) the top of crane rail for top-mounted cranes;
b) the top of flange on which the crane or hoist block operates for underslung cranes and monorail hoist blocks;
c) the support points as shown in Figure 1.1 for light crane systems.
- Draft75 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1993-4-2
(1) EN 1993 4 2 provides rules for structural design of vertical cylindrical, conical and pedestal above-ground steel tanks for the storage of liquids and refrigerated liquefied gas products.
(2) This document is applicable to the design for resistance of cylindrical walls and flat bottoms constructed using unstiffened plates. The design of conical and dome roofs as shell structures (unsupported) or as supported on a structural framework (supported) are also covered.
(3) This document is only applicable to the requirements for resistance and structural stability of steel tanks.
(4) Further guidance on design aspects other than the structural design can be obtained from EN 14015 or the EN 14620 series, as applicable.
(5) This document only covers steel tank structures in Tank Groups 1, 2 and 3, as defined in this document.
NOTE Tank Group 4 is not defined in this document (see 3.1.40).
(6) This document is applicable to tanks within the following dimensional limits (see EN 1991-4):
- tank aspect ratio hS/d < 10
- tank total height hS < 70 m
- tank diameter d < 100 m
(7) This document includes suitable rules for the design of tanks intended to store solids suspended in a liquid, where the appropriate global density of the mixture is used.
NOTE Tanks used for the separation of mineral particles of different density fall into this category.
(8) This document does not apply to the following:
a) tanks with gross capacity less than 5 m3 (5 000 l);
b) dished-end tanks that have a diameter less than 5 m;
c) tanks with characteristic internal pressures above the liquid surface greater than 50 kPa (500 mbar) (see pressure equipment directive);
d) design metal temperatures outside the ranges defined in Clause 5;
e) tanks of rectangular and other non-circular planforms;
f) tanks exposed to fire;
g) floating roofs and floating covers;
h) ancillary structures such as stairways, platforms, nozzles, piping and access doors.
(9) This document does not cover:
a) the special requirements for seismic design of tanks;
b) the design of a supporting structure;
c) the design of ancillary structures such as stairways, platforms, pipe racks and ladders;
d) the design of an aluminium roof structure on a steel tank;
e) reinforced concrete foundations for steel tanks;
f) the design of a conical hopper;
g) the design of a transition junction between the base of a cylindrical shell wall and a conical hopper;
h) the design of a supporting ring girder in an elevated tank.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990-1, the EN 1991 series and the EN 1993-1 series apply.
(2) The design methods given in this document apply if:
- the execution quality is as specified in EN 1090-2, and
- the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of the EN 1993 series, or in the relevant material standards, see Clause 5.
NOTE Further guidance on execution and material choice can be obtained from the documents EN 14015 or EN 14620 2, as applicable.
(3) This document applies to axisymmetric structures, but includes the effects of unsymmetrical actions (e.g. wind), and unsymmetrically supported tanks (e.g. on discrete supports).
(4) This document is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 1990-1, with EN 1991-4, with the other Parts of EN 1991, with EN 1993-1-6 and EN 1993-4-1, with the other Parts of EN 1993, with EN 1992 and with the other Parts of EN 1994 to EN 1999 relevant to the design of tanks. Matters that are already covered in those documents are not repeated.
(5) Numerical values for partial factors and other reliability parameters are recommended as basic values that provide an acceptable level of reliability. They have been selected assuming that an appropriate level of workmanship and quality management applies.
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(1) EN 1994-1-2 gives rules for the design of steel-concrete composite structures for the accidental design situation of fire exposure. It only identifies differences from, or supplements to, rules for normal temperature design.
(2) EN 1994-1-2 only applies to structures, or parts of structures, that are within the scope of EN1994-1-1 and are designed accordingly.
- Draft136 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
EN 1994-2 gives design rules for steel-concrete composite bridges or members of bridges, supplementary to the general rules given in EN 1994-1-1.
- Draft39 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies the properties and characteristics of typical horizontal joints between two prefabricated ordinary concrete external wall components and a concrete floor. However, the characteristics of joints, which are involved in the structural behaviour of buildings, are not specified in this document. This document is applicable to all public or private buildings, used as dwellings, offices, educational or hospital premises.
- Standard11 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document intends to provide a guideline for barriers waterproofing and protection specific to the protection against leakage and contamination underground conditions for underground concrete structures. This document addresses the following topics in the coming sections. Ambient and environmental conditions of underground concrete structures Types of barriers used for waterproofing and protection Performance requirement for waterproofing and protection Performance evaluation for waterproofing and protection Selection procedure of optimal waterproofing and protection
- Technical specification13 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document specifies requirements for fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets for upgrading of concrete members for material suppliers. The methodologies to express the mechanical properties as characteristic values, appearance and dimensions, and sampling test are specified in this document. The fibre orientation of the FRP sheets covered by this document is unidirectional.
- Standard6 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document provides the principles and procedures of environmental management for execution activities of concrete structures, which comprises earthwork/foundation work, formwork, reinforcement work, concreting work and waste treatment. Additional works for concrete structures such as electric work and utility work are outside the scope of this standard.
- Standard20 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document specifies test methods to determine loss of pretension in high-strength bolts due to the presence of coatings on the faying surface(s) of a bolted joint to be used in structural steelwork, when any of the coatings are thick enough to affect the pretension in a bolt in the short term, or can show significant deformation over time under sustained loads (creep-prone materials). The presence within the grip of the bolt of other materials having considerably smaller stiffness than steel, such as insulation, is not included in this test method.
- Standard11 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document provides design examples of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) hybrid structures in accordance with ISO 16521. This document includes the design calculation of major structural types in ISO 16521, i.e., trussed CFST hybrid structures, concrete-encased CFST hybrid structures. The design examples cover the major loading cases for the structures and follow the design procedure presented in ISO 16521:2024, Clause 6.
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1.1 Scope of prEN 1995-1-1
(1) prEN 1995-1-1 gives general design rules for timber structures.
(2) prEN 1995-1-1 also gives specific design rules for buildings and timber civil engineering works.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) The assumptions of EN 1990 apply to this document.
(2) prEN 1995-1-1 is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts), EN 1998 (all parts) when timber structures are built in seismic regions.
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This document specifies a procedure to determine the slip factor of faying surfaces in slip-resistant (friction) connections to be used in structural steelwork. The method is mainly applicable to uncoated and coated components made of steel with various surface treatments. This document applies mainly to carbon steels but can be used for other type of steels as appropriate.
- Standard9 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
This document specifies a laboratory method of determining the minimum pressing time for glue line thicknesses close contact, 0,2 mm, 0,3 mm and 0,5 mm, at three temperatures and three wood moisture contents.
This document is intended to determine the minimum pressing time using a specified procedure for obtaining a reliable base for comparison of minimum pressing time between adhesives under referenced conditions.
The method gives a result that cannot be applied to the safe manufacture of timber structures without taking into account the influence in variation of factors such as timber density, wood moisture content, factory temperature and relative air humidity.
- Standard15 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies a method of determining the ability of adhesive bonds to resist long-term sustained load applied vertical to the glue lines. It is applicable to adhesives used in load-bearing timber structures.
It is applicable for the following applications:
a) for assessing the compliance of adhesives according to EN 15425 and EN 16254;
b) for assessing the effect on the bond strength resulting from long-term sustained load at cyclic climate conditions.
This method is intended primarily to obtain performance data for the classification of adhesives for load bearing timber structures according to their suitability for use in defined climatic environments.
This method is not intended to provide data for structural design and does not necessarily represent the performance of the bonded member in service.
- Standard14 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies a laboratory method of determining the open assembly time under referenced conditions in standard climate (20 ± 2) °C and (65 ± 5) % relative humidity (hereafter climate [20/65]).
The method gives a result that cannot be applied to the safe manufacture of timber structures without taking into account the influence of factors such as timber density, moisture content, factory temperature and relative air humidity.
- Standard10 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies a method for determining the creep deformation of bonded specimens loaded in bending shear. It is applicable to adhesives used in load bearing timber structures.
It is applicable for assessing the compliance of adhesives to EN 15425 and EN 16254.
This test is intended primarily to obtain performance data for the classification of adhesives for load bearing timber structures according to their suitability for use in defined climatic environments.
This method is not intended to provide data for structural design and does not necessarily represent the performance of the bonded member in service.
- Standard14 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1993 5
(1) This document provides rules for the structural design of bearing piles and sheet piles made of steel.
(2) This document provides rules for the structural design of steel elements for foundations and retaining structures constructed using steel piles.
(3) This document is applicable to:
— steel piled foundations for civil engineering works on land and over water;
— temporary or permanent structures needed to carry out steel piling work;
— temporary and permanent retaining structures made of continuous steel piling.
(4) This document does not apply to:
— offshore platforms;
— dolphins;
— ground reinforcing elements.
NOTE Ground reinforcing elements include rock bolts, soil nails, sprayed concrete, wire mesh and facing elements.
(5) This document does not cover the following aspects:
— geotechnical design;
— seismic design.
NOTE 1 For geotechnical design, see EN 1997 (all parts).
NOTE 2 For the effects of ground movement caused by earthquakes, see EN 1998 (all parts).
(6) This document provides methods for design by calculation and for design assisted by testing.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts), EN 1993 1 (all parts) and EN 1997 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in EN 1993 5 are applicable if
— the execution quality for steel piles is as specified in EN 12063, EN 12699, EN 14199; and
— the execution quality for associated steel elements (such as bracing, anchors, waling, etc.) is as specified in EN 1090 2, EN 1537; and
— the execution quality for concreting of bearing piles is as specified in EN 1536; and
— the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993 (all parts), or in the relevant material and product specifications.
(3) The methods for design by calculation apply only within the stated ranges of material properties and geometric proportions, for which sufficient experience and test evidence is available. These limitations do not apply to design assisted by testing.
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1.1 Scope of EN 1995-3
(1) This document gives minimum requirements for execution of timber structures (buildings and bridges) designed in accordance with EN 1995 (all parts) to ensure that what is built meets the requirements for mechanical resistance, serviceability, durability, and fire performance.
(2) This document gives guidance on moisture control during transport to the building site, storage on site, handling on site and erection.
(3) This document gives guidance on workmanship and deviation limits during execution.
(4) This document assumes that there is an execution specification which states all the specific requirements relevant for the execution of a particular structure.
(5) For products covered by a European technical product specification, this document only covers those aspects of fabrication such as cutting, machining and drilling after placement of the product on the market.
(6) This document does not cover:
a) parts which are not designed according to EN 1995;
b) temporary works (such as formwork, scaffolding, propping, shoring, etc.);
c) specification, production and conformity of timber members in accordance with European technical product specifications;
d) deviation limits for other properties than mechanical resistance, serviceability, durability and fire performance;
e) contractual aspects, responsibilities of the various parties, competency requirements or the degree of independence of the personnel undertaking the inspection;
f) health and safety requirements during execution.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) It is assumed that all relevant provisions of EN 1995 are complied with.
(2) It is recognized in this document that areas such as detailed requirements for competence of personnel, and details related to Quality Management are within the competence of the CEN Member States.
(3) Before the execution begins on a part of the structure, it is assumed that the following are available on site:
— the drawings and specification of that part;
— the execution specification.
(4) Before the start of the execution, it is assumed that the execution specification has been checked for completeness.
(5) It is assumed that previous work (such as foundations) has been inspected and that any work which needs to be done due to deviations from the execution specification has been carried out.
- Draft70 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of prEN 1993-1-14
(1) This document gives principles and requirements for the use of numerical methods in the design of steel structures, more specifically for the ultimate limit state (including fatigue) and serviceability limit state verifications. It also gives principles and requirements for the application of advanced finite element (FE) and similar modelling techniques for numerical simulation which also covers safety assessment.
(2) This document covers general methodologies such as the finite element method (FEM), finite strip method (FSM) or generalized beam theory (GBT) for modelling, analysis and design of steel structures made of the following members and joint configurations:
a) hot-rolled profiles,
b) cold-formed members and sheeting,
c) welded plated profiles,
d) stainless steel profiles,
e) plate assemblies,
f) shell structures,
g) welded and bolted joints.
In addition to the general design rules, specific additional rules can also be found in the relevant standard parts in EN 1993.
(3) This document contains harmonized design rules in terms of the application of the numerical modelling methods, development of the numerical models, application of analysis types, result evaluation methods, and determination of the resistance of steel structures for different limit states.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) This document gives rules intended for engineers who are experienced in the use of FE.
(2) It is recognized that structural analysis, based upon the laws of physics, has been successfully researched, developed, historically or currently used for the design and verification of elements or whole structural frames. This remains appropriate for many structural solutions. However, when a more detailed understanding of structural behaviour is required, the methods described in this document can be useful for the professional design.
(3) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts) and the other relevant parts of EN 1993-1 (all subparts) apply.
(4) The design methods given in EN 1993-1-14 are applicable if
- the execution quality is as specified in EN 1090-2 and/or EN 1090-4, and
- the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993 (all parts), or in the relevant material and product specifications.
- Draft64 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope of EN 1995-1-2
(1) This document deals with the design of timber structures for the accidental situation of fire exposure and it is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 1995-1-1 and EN 1991-1-2.
This document only identifies differences from, or supplements to, normal temperature design.
(2) This document applies to timber structures required to fulfil a loadbearing function, separating function or both.
(3) This document gives principles and application rules for the design of structures for specified requirements in respect of the aforementioned functions and the levels of performance.
(4) This document applies to structures, or parts of structures, that are within the scope of EN 1995-1-1 and are designed accordingly.
(5) The methods given in this document are applicable to all products covered by European technical product specifications made reference to in this document.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) In addition to the general assumptions of EN 1990, the following assumptions apply:
- the choice of the relevant design fire scenario is made by appropriate qualified and experienced personnel, or is given by the relevant national regulation;
- any fire protection measure taken into account in the design will be adequately maintained.
- Draft180 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies procedures for assessing the fracture strength of a protective paint coating of any thickness on a steel substrate of thickness not less than 3 mm. The procedures given in document are based on methods used with different types of pull-off test equipment. The results obtained using such different types of equipment are not comparable.
This document is only applicable if a fracture strength value is specified, together with the type of test equipment and the manufacturer of the equipment. Usually, this information is included in contract documentation.
This document also specifies suitable equipment and defines inspection areas, sampling plans and acceptance/rejection criteria.
It does not give any values of the fracture strength of different protective paint coatings.
- Standard17 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies procedures for assessing the resistance of paint systems when a cut in the form of a right-angle lattice pattern (cross-cut) or in the form of an X (X-cut) is made into the paint, penetrating through to the substrate. This document is only applicable if the cross-cut or X-cut test method is specified, together with the rating from the appropriate rating scale.
This document also specifies suitable equipment and defines inspection areas, sampling plans and acceptance/rejection criteria.
It does not specify ratings for particular coating systems.
- Standard16 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies procedures for assessing the fracture strength of a protective paint coating of any thickness on a steel substrate of thickness not less than 3 mm. The procedures given in document are based on methods used with different types of pull-off test equipment. The results obtained using such different types of equipment are not comparable.
This document is only applicable if a fracture strength value is specified, together with the type of test equipment and the manufacturer of the equipment. Usually, this information is included in contract documentation.
This document also specifies suitable equipment and defines inspection areas, sampling plans and acceptance/rejection criteria.
It does not give any values of the fracture strength of different protective paint coatings.
- Standard17 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
1.1 Scope
(1) EN 1993-1-6 provides rules for the structural design of plated steel structures that have the form of a shell of revolution (axisymmetric shell).
(2) This document is applicable to unstiffened fabricated axisymmetric shells formed from isotropic rolled plates using both algebraic and computational procedures, and to stiffened axisymmetric shells with different wall constructions using computational procedures. It also applies to associated circular or annular plates and to beam section rings and stringer stiffeners where they form part of the complete shell structure. The general computational procedures are applicable to all shell forms.
(3) This document does not apply to manufactured shells or to shell panels or to elliptical shell forms, except that its computational procedures are applicable to all shell structures. This document does not apply to structures under seismic or other dynamic loading. It does not cover the aspects of leakage of stored liquids or solids.
(4) Cylindrical and conical panels are not explicitly covered by this document. However, the provisions of 9.8 can be used provided that appropriate boundary conditions are taken into account.
(5) This document defines the characteristic and design values of the resistance of the structure.
(6) This document is concerned with the requirements for design against the ultimate limit states of:
— plastic failure;
— cyclic plasticity;
— buckling;
— fatigue.
(7) Overall equilibrium of the structure (sliding, uplifting, overturning) is not included in this document. Special considerations for specific applications are included in the relevant application parts of EN 1993.
(8) Detailed formulae for the simple calculation of unstiffened cylinders, cones and spherical domes are given in the Annexes.
(9) Provisions for simple calculations on specific stiffened shell types are given in EN 1993-4-1.
(10) This document is intended for application to steel shell structures. Where no standard exists for shell structures made of other metals, including high strength steels, the provisions of this document are applicable provided the appropriate material properties of the metal are taken into account.
(11) The provisions of this document are intended to be applied within the temperature ranges defined in the relevant EN 1993 application parts.
(12) Where no application part defines a different range, this document applies to structures within the following limits:
— design metal temperatures lie within the range −50 °C to +100 °C, except when using the special provisions given in 5.1;
— radius to thickness ratios (r/t) within the range 50 to 2 000;
— manufactured circular hollow sections according to EN 10210 and EN 10219 are outside the scope of this document and are covered by EN 1993-1-1. However, if no other provisions are available, the rules of this document are useful for manufactured circular hollow sections. In particular, this document is applicable to the design of manufactured piles (see EN 1993-5) provided the imperfections and tolerance requirements of EN 1993-5 are adopted in place of those specified in this document, and where no other standard covers the specific pile geometry.
NOTE 1 Experimental and theoretical data relating to manufactured circular hollow sections were not considered when this document was drafted. The application of this document to such structures therefore remains the responsibility of the user.
NOTE 2 The stress design rules of this document can be rather conservative if applied to some geometries and loading conditions for relatively thick-walled shells.
NOTE 3 Thinner shells than r/t = 2 000 can be treated using these provisions but the provisions have not been verified for such thin shells.
NOTE 4 The maximum temperature is restricted so that the influence of creep can be ignored where high temperature creep effects are not covered by the relevant application part.
[...]
- Draft160 pagesEnglish languagee-Library read for1 day
This document specifies the management principles and procedures implemented at the execution stage under the framework of life cycle management specified by ISO 22040.
- Standard7 pagesEnglish languagesale 15% off
1.1 Scope of prEN 1993-1-7
(1) prEN 1993-1-7 provides rules for the structural design of assemblies of unstiffened and stiffened steel plates whose elements are under predominantly distributed transverse loads.
(2) prEN 1993-1-7 is applicable to containment structures such as silos, tanks, digesters and lock gates, where the external actions chiefly act transversely on their individual plates or panels. Where a plate or panel under bending is additionally subject to membrane forces that have a significant effect on the resistance, this document covers assessment of the resistance through its computational analysis procedures.
(3) prEN 1993-1-7 is applicable to structures with rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular component plate segments, each with one axis of symmetry.
(4) prEN 1993-1-7 does not apply to plates or panels where the dominant structural resistance requirement relates to membrane forces in the plates (for these, see EN 1993-1-5).
(5) prEN 1993-1-7 does not apply to plates or panels whose curvature (out of flatness) exceeds that defined in 1.1 (14). For such curved plates, see EN 1993-1-6.
(6) prEN 1993-1-7 does not apply to circular or annular plates. For such plates, see EN 1993 1-6.
(7) prEN 1993-1-7 does not apply to cold-formed sheeting. For such plates, see EN 1993-1-3.
(8) This document is only concerned with the requirements for design of plates and plate assemblies against the ultimate limit states of:
- plastic failure;
- cyclic plasticity;
- buckling;
- fatigue.
(9) Overall equilibrium of the structure (sliding, uplifting, or overturning) is not included in this document. Special considerations for specific applications are available in the relevant applications parts of EN 1993.
(10) The rules in this document refer to plate assemblies that are fabricated using unstiffened or stiffened plates or panels. The document is also applicable to the design of individual plates or panels that are predominantly subject to actions transverse to the plane of each plate. Both frictional actions on the plate surface and forces imposed by adjacent components of the plate assembly also induce in-plane actions in each plate.
(11) This document gives algebraic rules and guidance to account for bending with small membrane forces in the individual plates or panels. Where an unstiffened or stiffened plates or panels is subject to significant magnitudes of both bending and in-plane forces, the computational analysis procedures of this document apply.
(12) Where no application part defines a different range, this document applies to structures within the following limits:
- design metal temperatures within the range −50 °C to +100 °C;
- the geometry of individual plate segments is limited to rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal shapes with b/t greater than 20, or b1/t greater than 20, as appropriate (see Figure 3.2);
- Single plate elements are treated as flat where the deviation from flatness e0 meets the condition (see Figure 9.1). Where this criterion is not met, it is appropriate to treat the plate as a shell panel (see EN 1993-1-6).
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, the provisions of EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993 (all parts) apply.
(2) The design methods given in prEN 1993-1-7 are applicable if:
- the execution quality is as specified in EN 1090 2, and
- the construction materials and products used are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993 (all parts), or in the relevant material and product specifications.
(3) The provisions in this document apply to materials that satisfy the brittle fracture provisions given in EN 1993-1-4 and EN 1993-1-10.
(4) In this document, it is assumed that wind loading, seismic actions and bulk solids flow can, in general, be treated as quasi-static actions.
...
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